The European ground squirrel (Spermophilus citellus) is a burrowing species of squirrel endemic to parts of central and eastern Europe. Due to the widespread destruction and degradation of Europe’s grassland habitats for agriculture, the European ground squirrel has declined across its range and is now classified as endangered on the IUCN red list. To protect one of the remaining populations of European ground squirrel in Slovakia, the project will restore their degraded habitat by increasing feeding opportunities and reducing natural predation pressure.

Protecting Europe's Endangered Endemic Ground Squirrel

Ground squirrels hibernate during the winter in underground burrows only emerging in the spring time when the temperatures improve. To give the ground squirrels a little helping hand this spring, we are supporting our partners Broz to supply the ground squirrel colony with 500kg of sunflower seeds. This will help buy time to implement the longer-term solution, the planting of 50 wild fruit trees, including European crab apple and wild pear, to provide a reliable and diverse source of food. To compliment these restoration activities, Broz will also install 50 nest boxes for birds (e.g. great tits, sparrows, wrens) and small mammals (e.g. dormice) to support local populations of these species in an effort to reduce predation pressure on the ground squirrels. The ground squirrels will also benefit from the warning calls of some of these species, such as blue tits, which increases the chances of detecting approaching predators. 

Learn More About the Context Behind this Project

The European ground squirrel is endemic to Europe, which means it’s found nowhere else in the world. It is undoubtedly an important natural element of European grassland ecosystems. It can help to maintain heterogeneity and complexity in grassland ecosystems, creating patches of higher diversity and structural complexity. Reptiles and amphibians, for example, benefit from using old abandoned burrows for shelter. Ground squirrels are also an important prey species for several top predators, including eagles, buzzards, foxes and weasels. Because of these associations, the European ground squirrel can be considered a keystone species of European grassland ecosystems.  

Not long ago the European ground squirrel was a common species across parts of Central and Eastern Europe. In Slovakia, it was considered a pest species as recently as 1960s. Due to drastic changes in land use and agricultural practices, the ground squirrel has since lost much of its natural habitat and is now classified as endangered. Only a few, small isolated populations remain in Slovakia, and many of them are continuing to decline. A significant threat to the species´ survival is now a lack of feeding opportunities as seeds, fruits and insects are increasingly hard to find in their human-dominated landscapes. 

We are restoring the endangered European ground squirrels' habitat in Slovakia. Learn why this rewilding intervention is so important for this endemic animal.

Saving Slovakia's Ground Squirrels

Increasing Feeding Opportunities and Reducing Predation Pressure

Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula) is a keystone species that is largely missing from Scottish woodlands today. In Europe, its often found alongside birch, rowan, willow, and alder in the broadleaf component of northern coniferous forests. Together, they can occupy around 15-20% of the forest. In Scotland, aspen mostly exists as small, isolated fragments often consisting of single relict trees. To restore the natural diversity of the native pinewoods and return aspen to the landscape, we are partnering with Alladale Wilderness Reserve on a long-term project to plant and support the natural regeneration of aspen trees on the reserve.   

Beginning in Spring 2021, we launched a long-term partnership with Alladale to plant and protect aspen trees on the reserve. We hope to significantly increase the amount of aspen on the reserve by planting open areas with trees grown in nurseries and by protecting naturally regenerating aspen from deer browsing with fences. We will focus our efforts in riparian areas where aspen play an important role in stabilising the river bank, creating shade and providing nutrients in the form of leaf fall. In doing so, we will also improve the suitability of the reserve for beavers in the event of their return in the future. 

Aspen is considered to be a keystone species because of its ecological importance for other species. It provides vital habitat for a number of invertebrates, including aspen hoverfly (Hammerschmidtia ferruginea), an endangered species in the UK, as well as a diversity of lichen and bryophytes. Aspen is an important source of food for wildlife like, the Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), and provides important nesting sites for several species of hole nesting birds, including various species of woodpeckers. In Europe, aspen stands have been shown to be used by capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), another endangered species in Britain and of great conservation concern. 

Historical management of Scotland’s woodlands for timber meant that non-useful trees, like aspen, were removed. This, coupled with the fact that aspen is one of the most palatable trees to deer and other herbivores, has reduced aspen in Scotland to small isolated fragments.  High densities of deer are now limiting the regeneration and return of aspen to the Scottish landscape. Aspen also rarely produces seeds in Scotland, reproducing mainly by new shoots, called ramets or suckers, growing directly from the root systems of mature trees. As a result, once aspen is removed from a site, it is very slow to colonise. 

We are restoring Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula) to the Scottish Highlands in partnership with Alladale Wilderness Reserve. Learn why aspen is important to protect.

Restoration of Eurasian aspen trees

Returning a Keystone Tree to the Scottish Highlands

In Croatia, there is a huge network of submerged caves that is recognized as a global hotspot for subterranean biodiversity. The animals that have adapted to live here are unlike anything you may find above the surface. The olm, for example, is a blind cave salamander that can live up to a century and survive for a decade without feeding. The specific cave we are focusing on is also home to the world’s only species of cave freshwater sponge and it provides habitat for the last remaining population of Croatian Dace, a species of small fish that is thought to be on the verge of extinction. The cave’s entrance has been used as a waste disposal site for centuries and the accumulated pollution is threatening the cave animals that live there. For this project, we are partnering with expert cave biologists and cave divers from the Croatian Institute for Biodiversity to plan an operation to remove the most dangerous materials from the cave. The goal is to safeguard the future of these unique species and prevent further contamination of an important source of drinking water. 

Protecting the Croatian "Baby Dragon" and its Underwater Caves

This project will fund an operation to remove waste from a cave that provides habitat for threatened cave animals. About 16 cubic m3 of solid waste have accumulated inside the cave. This includes plastic, metal, rubber, wood and domestic appliances. The waste that is currently above the water level will be removed by a team of local cavers with the aid of ropes and winches if necessary. For submerged waste, a more complex operation involving cave divers will be required to bring these large objects to the surface.

Funding will be used to pay for the food and transport of volunteer cavers and cave divers during the operation and to purchase the equipment needed to carry it out. Given the amount of waste, the intervention is likely to take several days. Even so, it is unlikely that we will be able to remove all the waste in which case the objects deemed more likely to be contaminating the water will be removed first. Once removed, the waste will be transported to an appropriate recycling plant by truck. 

Sir David Attenborough in Attenborough's Story of Life, BBC Earth

The olm is reliant on clean pure water and water pollution is one of its main threats

The Dinaric arc is a cave biodiversity hotspot

The Dinaric arc in South-Eastern Europe is a region characterised by stunning landscapes, from impressive mountain peaks to cascading turquoise waterfalls and a wild Mediterranean coast. Easier to miss however is the fact that this region hosts the largest network of subterranean rivers in Europe and that it is a global hotspot for cave biodiversity. Because it is difficult for cave-adapted animals to move between caves many species have a very narrow distribution and some exist only in a single cave.

The Rupečica-Šmitovo cave system, which is the one we are focusing on, provides habitat for some very interesting species. The olm is probably the most famous among them. It’s a blind cave salamander that can live up to a century and survive for a decade without feeding. It is among the most evolutionarily distinct amphibians known to science meaning that there is nothing else like it on earth. It is also one of the 10 species that David Attenborough would select to be saved from extinction if he had to choose. Another interesting species found here is the Croatian dace a small freshwater fish species that rely on this habitat to sustain its last remaining population. And a final species that needs mentioning is the Ogulin cave sponge. This is the world’s only known species of cave-dwelling freshwater sponge and it is known only from a few caves around this area. 

Sadly the entire community of organisms in this cave is under threat. This is especially concerning if we consider that many of them are at considerable risk of global extinction. 

The olm, Proteus anguinus, is classified as vulnerable to extinction, mainly due to the threat posed by water pollution and cave habitat degradation throughout its range 

The Croatian dace, Telestes polylepis, is classified as critically endangered and appears to be on the verge of extinction with the last small population found inside this cave. 

The cave sponge, Eunapius subterraneus, was previously classified as endangered and exists only in this part of Croatia but more data is needed about its conservation status. 

Like so many others, the entrance of the cave has been used as a waste disposal site for centuries and this has resulted in the accumulation of large amounts of waste. Unless we remove it, toxic chemicals will continue to degrade water quality and once these chemicals enter the cave system through the water they can no longer be physically removed and may continue affecting the ecosystem for a long time. On top of this, the submerged caves in this region provide drinking water for the surrounding area and if they continue being contaminated this could end up having negative health consequences. 

If the world of cave biology intrigues you and you haven’t yet read our article about cave dwelling animals you should check it out! 

If you want to learn more about the backstory of why we think it is important to protect bizarre creatures like the olm you can listen to our podcast episode about Mossy Earth’s “Ugly ones” programme.

The "Ugly" ones rewilding programme | Project notes #1

We are removing toxic waste from a cave in Croatia to help unique animals such as the olm. 

Cave clean up

Removing toxic waste to help unique creatures of the underworld 

Along the shores of Lac Aloatra in Madagascar lives an endemic reed dwelling lemur – the Alaotran gentle lemur (Hapalemur alaotrensis). Locally known as Bandro, the Alaotran gentle lemur is under threat from habitat loss, bushmeat hunting and the pet trade. The most recent figures point to an alarming decline in their numbers over the last five years, with 30% of the wild population being lost. Today, there are only an estimated 5,000 Alaotran gentle lemurs left. So, in February 2020, we joined forces with Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust to support their work in restoring the vital wetland habitat that the lemurs depend on and help bring them back from the brink of extinction. This project is funded through our business membership with PCF Bank. 

Invasive aquatic plants, salvinia (Salvinia molesta) and water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), are currently causing severe problems in Lac Alaotra. They cover approximately 60% of the primary fishing channels and access routes around the lake and marshes. Local fisherpeople are then forced to burn new areas of reedbeds and marshes so that they can access the lake and earn a living. These plants are also reducing water quality and preventing the reedbeds from naturally generating. To improve access for fishing and patrol canoes and improve water quality, we are supporting the clearing of invasive plants along 10km of key fishing and access channels. This will be carried out by the local community members, who will also benefit from the project through the production of organic compost, made from the plant waste. Community patrol teams will then monitor the cleared areas to prevent the invasive plants from returning.    

The Alaotran gentle lemur is endemic to Lac Alaotra. This means it’s found nowhere else in the world. It is also the only primate in the world whose habitat is confined to wetlands. Because of this, it is at extreme risk of global extinction if we do not intervene. It is one of five species of bamboo or gentle lemur but is significantly larger than the others. It uses its grasping hands and feet and long tail to balance when walking along reed stalks in its lakeside habitat and may possibly be able to swim.

Lac Alaotra is Madagascar's most important rice-producing region and inland fishery. Unfortunately, migrating populations who come to Alaotra seeking fertile croplands are burning huge swathes of reed beds to convert to rice-paddies. Years of poor management and traditional monoculture cultivation have gradually reduced annual productivity, creating a vicious cycle in which more land is burnt each year for agriculture. Approximately 2,000 hectares of marshland are burnt each year, with devastating consequences for the lemurs. The quality of the lake and its wetland habitats are also under threat from the deforestation of the surrounding hills, which is causing soil erosion and water pollution of surrounding areas.

While habitat loss is the primary threat to the gentle lemur, hunting for food and for the pet trade is also adding to the problem. Although legally protected in Madagascar, evidence suggests that a large number of lemurs are hunted annually, with more than 1,000 casualties recorded in some years. To compliment the habitat restoration work, Durrell are also running a local education programme to improve awareness among local people of the importance of protecting the lemurs and their habitat. 

Along with the wildlife pet trade, find out about other imminent threats facing wildlife from human-related activities in our Responsible Travel Tips guide. The guide highlights issues associated with tourism and provides tips on how to play a positive part in them.

The Alaotra Gentle Lemur's habitat is under threat from invasive plants. This lemur conservation project aims to restore their habitat by clearing these plants.

Restoring the Habitat of the Critically Endangered Alaotra Gentle Lemur

Clearing Invasive Plants To Protect a Critically Endangered Lemur

In early 2021, we will be supporting the Kyle of Sutherland Fisheries Trust to monitor Atlantic salmon migration, and identify barriers to their movements, at Alladale Wilderness Reserve. We will be sponsoring 10 radio tags to enable the Trust to monitor the movement of salmon upstream. This project is funded through our wonderful business partners Inlumi. 

Learn more about why we are monitoring Atlantic salmon migration

Why are salmon important to the ecosystem?

Every year in Autumn, Scotland's crystal clear salmon rivers and streams are transformed into a frenzy of fish leaping and swimming their way upstream to spawn in freshwater gravel beds, before returning to sea. In doing so, salmon help bring nutrients from the ocean ecosystem upstream into freshwater environments. Through excretion, spawning, death and decay, salmon directly affect the ecology of their freshwater environments and increase nutrient availability for algae, invertebrates and young salmon. 

Salmon themselves are an important food source for an abundance of aquatic and terrestrial wildlife, such as otters, waterfowl and eagles. At sea, salmon are predated on by some of the ocean's top predators, such as sharks, dolphins and seals. They also have an interesting symbiotic relationship with a priority species in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, the freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera). Adult mussels filter water, improving the water quality and reproductive conditions for salmon, and salmon return the favour by providing a safe environment for mussel larvae to develop within their gills.

According to the Atlantic Salmon Trust, for every 100 wild Atlantic salmon (Salmo sala) that leave Scotland’s rivers for the sea, fewer than five return. This represents a decline of nearly 70% in 25 years. There is no single cause of this decline in migration, but a complex web of anthropogenic activities, including climate change. On the River Carron, which runs through our reforestation area at Alladale Wilderness Reserve, a unique situation exists. Water from the uppermost reaches of the river is re-routed to another catchment for hydro-electric power generation via a tunnel. Consequently, migrating juvenile salmon would be likely to head down this pipe and be “lost” to the Carron system. The historic solution was to put a dam immediately downstream to prevent adult salmon from spawning in this area and retain their offspring in the Carron system.

For a number of years, salmon have been reported above the dam. For several consecutive seasons, salmon/trout hybrids and some full juvenile salmon have been caught above this dam. This implies that salmon are circumventing the dam and spawning there, but the exact mechanism is unknown. One of the ways salmon could be getting over the damn is swimming through the scour valve when it is opened for a few hours in the autumn. In partnership with the Kyle of Sutherland Fisheries Trust, we are supporting efforts to radio track the salmon and identify the way in which salmon are ascending the dam by funding the purchase of 10 radio tags. This will help provide the Trust with vital information for the conservation of wild Atlantic salmon in the River Carron. 

Tiago, our conservation biologist, sat down with Jaakko Erkinaro. A renowned researcher, Jaakko's fields of research cover both freshwater and marine phases of salmonid fishes, for which he has published over one hundred peer-reviewed scientific articles. Together they discussed threatened freshwater ecosystems, the problems migratory fish face, and the conservation of such watercourses.

Learn more about migratory fish, their threats & conservation

Migratory Fish - Threats & Conservation

Migratory fish - threats & conservation | a chat with professor Jakko Erkinaro

To contribute to the conservation of Scotland's Atlantic salmon we will be supporting the tagging and migration tracking of wild salmon as they move up river to spawn. 

Tagging Wild Atlantic Salmon in Scotland

In the autumn of 2020, we supported Alladale Wilderness Reserve and the Roy Dennis Wildlife Foundation in building eagle nest platforms in Scottish pinewoods. The nests aim to promote breeding among the resident population of golden eagles and support the return of white-tailed eagles, two birds of prey of conservation concern in the UK. This project was funded through the business membership of our partner Inlumi. 

Building nests for Golden and White-tailed eagles

Learn more about why we are building nest platforms for eagles

Historically, white-tailed sea eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) and golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) could both be found patrolling the skies of Scotland. Around 100 years ago when white-tailed eagles were eradicated from Britain primarily through persecution due to its reputation of predating lambs. Golden eagles were also persecuted for predating lambs as well as economically valuable game birds until it was eradicated from England and Wales. Habitat loss and pesticide poisoning also played a role in the decline of these species. In the 1970s, reintroduction efforts began to return white-tailed eagles to Scotland using birds from Norway while golden eagle populations in Scotland have soured through. In 2019, a white-tailed sea eagle was spotted at Alladale Wilderness Reserve and stayed in the area for several weeks for the first time since their disappearance. A pair of golden eagles have already made the reserve their home. 

A white-tailed sea eagle soars the skies near our project area in Scotland

White-tailed eagle

In partnership with Alladale Wilderness Reserve and the Roy Dennis Foundation, Mossy Earth funded the construction of artificial nest platforms to encourage these magnificent birds of prey to nest on the reserve and support the local population of these rare species.  The project involved building 2 artificial nest platforms, each targeted towards a species. After identifying suitable areas of the reserve for the nests, construction began in Autumn 2020 in time for breeding the following spring. Camera traps were installed on the platforms to monitor the activity at the nests and identify any species that visit the sites within the first year.

To support the local population of golden eagles and white-tailed sea eagles we will build nest platforms to encourage the eagles to nest on the reserve. 

Building Eagle Nest Platforms

For the Spring 2020 rewilding project, we head to the location of our new project, Slovakia, where we support our amazing partners, Broz, to restore the Danube floodplain forests. Our members were given the choice between meadow restoration, habitat restoration for the Pannonian root vole and protecting European pond turtle eggs & nests. Our members chose to support the wonderful work to protect Slovakia's endangered population of European pond turtles. 

Slovakia Rewilding Vote

Learn more about why we are protecting European pond turtle eggs & nests

Discussions of turtle conservation more often than not bring up images of charismatic sea turtles, like the logger head and green turtle, gliding through crystal clear warm waters and bathing on soft white tropical sand. Both these species are also found in Europe, specifically the Mediterranean Sea, and are the focus of ambitious conservation projects to protect against the large number of threats they face in Europe, both on land and at sea. These include harvesting for consumption, habitat degradation, disturbance and fishing-induced mortality. Lesser known but equally deserving of our attention are Europe’s freshwater turtles. Many freshwater species, which includes terrapins and pond turtles, are under threat from the pet trade, habitat degradation, habitat fragmentation, vehicle collisions and non-native predators, yet their conservation seems less of a priority. That’s why we’ve partnered with Broz, our partners in Slovakia, to protect one such species, the little European pond turtle, and help safeguard its future in Slovakia. 

Fossil records show the European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis) has been present in Slovakia for at least 120,000 years. However, in recent years it has disappeared from much of its range. Today, there are only two known sites with a viable breeding population in Slovakia. These pond turtles live in open habitats and rely on wetlands, ponds and water channels for hunting and moving. Eggs are laid in shallow under ground nests in sandy soils with little vegetation. Depending on the weather, the hatchlings can remain at the nest site throughout winter and start emerging in spring following year. Unfortunately, the European pond turtle is losing suitable breeding habitat across much of its range as land is converted to agriculture and nests destroyed and turtles killed by agricultural disturbance.

The nesting behaviour of these pond turtles leaves them susceptible to predators as well. Our partners have access to one of the last remaining breeding populations in Slovakia, where predation is the main threat. Predator protection measures are there a vital conservation intervention to protect this important population. The project funds the training of detection dog to detect turtle eggs underground. Since nests are practically invisible to the human eye, the detection dog will accompany the field team to the breeding site to survey for active nests. Fences are erected over active nests to protect the eggs and hatchlings from predators, thereby helping to improve the reproductive success of one of Slovakia’s last remaining breeding populations of European pond turtle.

To support the conservation of the turtles more widely, the team are tagging turtles with GPS trackers to enable them to monitoring their movement patterns in the long term. This will provide crucial data to enable the team to identify important areas of habitat for protection and restoration, including any unknown breeding sites.

To contribute to the conservation of Slovakia's European Pond Turtle we are supporting surveying and protection of active nests and turtle eggs.

Protecting Turtle Nests & Eggs

Conserving Slovakia's European Pond Turtle

In early 2021, we partnered with Oana Namibia to fund a native plant nursery to support future large-scale reforestation and reforestation efforts. Oana is located in Southern Namibia, where the landscape is characterised by open desert shrubland interspersed by mountainous terrain, wooded ephemeral (intermittent water) and perennial (constant water) river beds, and grassy sand and gravel plains. These habitats are threatened by overgrazing, the spread of non-native Prosopis spp., climate change and erosion. Oana has already made great progress in clearing large areas of Prosopis and will soon be able to start restoring the river beds as well as the grassland ecosystem through planting. 

Rewilding the Namibian Deep South

The funding from this project will cover the main supplies needed to build a 300 m2 nursery. This nursery will supply the seedlings and saplings of native trees and grasses for future planting and restoration, and house native succulents, like elephant’s trunk (Pachypodium namaquanum) and quiver tree (Aloidendron dichotomum), in case of local extinctions. The funding will enable Oana to purchase the shade cover, seed house, irrigation system and planting equipment (pots, secateurs, buckets etc.). 

Learn more about the context behind this project

The river beds of Oana and the surrounding areas act as islands of fertility in an otherwise dry, desert habitat. Camel thorn or giraffe thorn (Vacheillia erioloba) is one of only a few tree species native to the area and is considered to be a keystone species while the sandy plains are home to species of Eragrostis, Stipagrostis and Schmidtia grasses, which provide food for the local wildlife and shelter for small animals.

Across much of the landscape, overgrazing by domestic livestock is threatening the little vegetation that is capable of surviving in this harsh landscape. The fertile woodlands vital for many species are threatened by the spread of non-native Prosopis, introduced to the area to provide shade and livestock fodder, which increases desertification, outcompetes native flora and ultimately overtakes and homogenizes the river beds. Meanwhile, the grasses of the sandy plains have been overgrazed and left vulnerable to erosion. With climate change likely to increase the frequency of climatic extremes and rainfall, this is likely to become an even bigger problem in the future. 

This project would fund the construction of a local nursery to provide seedlings and saplings of native trees and grasses for future planting and restoration.

Building A Tree Nursery

Preparing For Future Reforestation and Habitat Restoration

South of the Douro river in Portugal, there is an Iberian wolf (Canis lupus signatus) subpopulation that, on top of other challenges, is being threatened by conflict with local farmers. When wolves attack livestock they become an economic burden for the local community, which may respond by killing or harming them. Unless this conflict is resolved it is difficult to see a viable future for the Iberian wolf in the region. For the August 2020 vote, we decided to work with our partners at Rewilding Portugal and focus on this issue. Our members could choose between 3 well-tested solutions to minimising wolf attacks: supporting livestock guarding dogs, building a wolf-proof fence or financing camera trap monitoring.  Supporting livestock guarding dogs was the option that won the vote. 

The Iberian Wolf - Mossy Earth Rewilding Vote

Livestock guarding dogs from native breeds, such as Serra da Estrela and Castro Laboreiro, can be extremely effective in detecting wolves near the flock/herd and chasing them away, thereby preventing wolf attacks and livestock losses from occurring. Still, there are significant costs associated with acquiring and taking good care of the dogs and this can deter farmers from embracing the solution. Rewilding Portugal is working together with Grupo Lobo to address this and make it easier for local farmers to acquire and maintain livestock guarding dogs.

This project involves providing food for 5 - 7 dogs until they are fully grown (about 18 months). Other than encouraging farmers, the intervention is designed to ensure that the dogs are properly fed so that they can become strong and effective protectors of the domestic animals and therefore decrease social conflict between these farmers and the Iberian wolf.  Support is directed towards farmers that experience a high risk of wolf attacks and that commit to taking good care of the dogs. Continued check ups with the farmers will be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the project. 

In Portugal, the Iberian wolf population is divided by the Douro river. While north of the Douro the subpopulation is larger and more stable, south of the Douro there are only a handful of scattered packs. This subpopulation is threatened by habitat destruction and fragmentation, large rural fires, illegal persecution, a lack of wild prey, and conflict with farmers. 

The main causes of wolf mortality in the region are due to humans – either due to traffic collisions, snares (directed at other species such as wild boar), or illegal persecution (the wolves are illegally shot). Taking into account the small size of the subpopulation (certainly fewer than 50 individuals) and its fragmented and unstable situation, decreasing the main causes of mortality to wolves is critical to ensure the long-term viability of the species in the region. 

Due to the lack of wild prey and poor protection of domestic animals, wolves often prey on domestic goats, sheep and cows, creating a social conflict with local communities. In the region, livestock breeding is one of the main economic activities, and the attacks from Iberian wolf can have a serious impact on the livelihood of some farmers. 

In this context, reducing conflict between wolves and livestock breeders is of paramount importance to safeguard the future of the Iberian wolf in this region and protect the livelihoods of the rural people. Rewilding in this instance is tied to improving coexistence with a large carnivore.

The project area includes the whole wolf range south of the Douro river. It is believed that a large part of the Iberian wolf subpopulation is currently in the areas of Montemuro and Serras da Freita e Arada. There are also some wolf packs in the middle zone of the project, in the areas of Leomil, Trancoso and Lapa. Due to their location and the stability of some of these packs they can play an important role in connecting Montemuro/Freita e Arada with the packs nearer the Spanish border.

This is extremely important considering that the wolf subpopulation is genetically isolated, particularly the packs in Montemuro/Freita e Arada. In the west, the areas of the Douro International and Malcata are currently the known limits of wolf distribution. This is an area of more irregular wolf presence, which receives dispersing wolves from the Spanish population. The stability of these packs plays a key role in bringing genetic diversity to the area.

Rather than being implemented in isolation, the chosen project will fit with the wider context of ecological restoration and rewilding in the area. Rewilding Portugal is coordinating the LIFE WolFlux project, which aims to decrease the ecological and socioeconomic barriers to the long-term viability of the Iberian wolf subpopulation south of the Douro river. Rewilding Portugal is implementing this five-year project (2019-2023) in partnership with other local partners. The LIFE WolFlux project is co-financed by the Endangered Landscapes Programme. The chosen Mossy Earth project will complement this LIFE project and allow Rewilding Portugal to have a greater impact in the region. 

The broader context of rewilding efforts in the area 

An overview of wolf conservation in Europe

Although the wolf is listed as ‘Least Concern’ in Europe, it is threatened at a national level in several countries (Sweden/Norway, Germany, France). It is therefore protected in Europe under a number of European Union agreements. The Berne Convention (The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats lists the wolf in Appendix II as a strictly protected species. Some countries that have signed the convention however, have been able to exclude the wolf from this convention, for example Finland, Poland and Spain. 

The wolf is also protected by the Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43 EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and wild flora and fauna). It is listed in Annexe II, which means it is considered species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas and Annexe IV, a species in need of strict protection. However, in some areas of Spain and Greece, in the Baltic countries and in the Finnish reindeer herding area, wolves are listed in Annexe V, which means they are a species whose taking in the wild and exploitation may be subject to management measures. 

Through the Berne Convention, an Action Plan for the conservation of wolves in Europe has been developed which requires management of wolf populations across borders and the formulation of individual action plans for each country. However, wolves are still legally hunted in a number of non-EU countries, including Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, FYR Macedonia, with limited legal hunting in some EU member states. 

Supporting livestock guarding dogs is a rewilding project designed to prevent wolf attacks on local farmers' sheep by the Iberian wolf.

Support livestock guarding dogs

Human-wolf coexistence in northern Portugal

In the summer of 2019, our members voted to decide on the project we would implement in the Côa Valley in northern Portugal, the location of our Wildlife Restoration project. They could choose between a feasibility study for the reintroduction of roe deer, Boundary & internal fencing or GPS tagging griffon vultures. It was the latter that took the vote and since July 2019 we have been supporting this vulture conservation intervention in collaboration with our partners at Rewilding Portugal. The detailed behavioural data acquired through this project is already providing answers to questions that before were only a matter of speculation. 

On the ground report: GPS Tagging Griffon Vultures

Learn more about why we are tagging Griffon vultures and vulture conservation.

The scarcity of wild herbivores in western Iberia means that griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) tend to feed on the abandoned carcasses of domesticated animals such as cattle and sheep. This makes them particularly vulnerable to changes in livestock farming practices. In 2001, following the bovine spongiform encephalopathy crisis (“mad cow disease”), the European union prohibited the abandonment of livestock carcasses in the field to prevent spread of the disease. The reduced food availability contributed to the decline of vulture populations in the area. 

Since then, however, the Iberian population has shown an impressive comeback. In the Côa valley, there were less than 10 breeding pairs during the 1990s and this number rose to 74 by 2015. The comeback to the areas was facilitated by the protection of suitable nesting habitat within the Faia Brava reserve. However, the key driver for the resurgence of griffon vultures throughout the Iberian Peninsula appears to have been a relaxation of the EU policy which once again allowed farmers to leave livestock carcasses in the field. 

Spain reverted it’s legislation before Portugal did. This explains a previous finding that vultures tagged in Spain clearly avoid Portuguese territory. In Portugal, abandoning livestock carcasses in the field became legal again in 2017 but obtaining the required permissions is a highly bureaucratic process which means that few farmers have changed their practices. 

Although the griffon vulture population in the Coa Valley has been monitored in the past, we could only guess where the vultures were foraging and what they were feeding on. This is where our vulture conservation project comes in by sponsoring the GPS devices required to track the movement patterns of griffon vultures.

These solar powered devices transmit precise geographical information without the need to recapture the individuals and have built in accelerometers which provide additional information about the way in which the vulture is moving at a given moment in time. This data can be used to determine when the vulture is resting, flying or foraging.

Moreover, this data can be used to identify the time and location of likely feeding events. By going to the field and looking for signs of feeding (such as carcass remains and vulture feathers), these feeding events can be confirmed and we can obtain information about what the vultures were feeding on, which in turn aids future vulture conservation efforts.

Contributing to the area's ambitious rewilding goals

This work of GPS tagging griffon vultures is part of a larger project that is currently being implemented in the region. The project "Scaling Up Rewilding in the Greater Côa Valley" is being led by Rewilding Europe and focuses on reinforcing a 120,000-hectare wildlife corridor that will improve connectivity in the landscape between the Malcata mountain range and the Douro Valley. This project is financed by the Endangered Landscapes Programme, which is managed by the Cambridge Conservation Initiative and funded by Arcadia, a charitable fund of Peter Baldwin and Lisbet Rausing.

Carlos Pacheco, raptor expert at ATNatureza.

GPS tagging the vultures will allow us to see whether the birds are feeding mostly on the carcasses of domestic livestock, or also on wild herbivores, and how often they visit vulture feeding stations, which will ultimately enable us to improve the management of food sources for the birds and support the restoration of trophic chains.

This interactive map was created with the data from 4 of the Griffon vultures tagged in the summer of 2019. You can follow the journey of each individual and see the distance travelled up to that point (by clicking on the bird's icon).

GPS tagging vultures gave us invaluable insight to the birds’ foraging behaviour. The data will support the restoration of food chains & future vulture conservation.

GPS Tagging Griffon Vultures

For our second Rewilding Impact Project we headed to our Native Oak Woodland Restoration project in the centre of Portugal. The first stage was to meet with our project partners Montis and discuss what the most beneficial rewilding actions would be for the project. After a lengthy brainstorming session, we arrived at the following three interventions that were then put to the vote: (1) A bio blitz, (2) a mapping drone and a (3) natural engineering workshop

A team of biologists would be invited for two days to assess the biodiversity of the plantation area and surrounding mountain sides. As well as identifying the flora and fauna in the area, the biologists would be there to train our forest engineers in carrying out such assessments in the future.

The second day would be open to the public to take part and help collect as much ecological information as possible. The data gathered would then be put on a collaborative platform for public and academic use. Throughout the two days there would be a particular focus on flora identification, bat behaviour and night butterflies.

A mapping drone is simple yet extremely useful tool for monitoring the results and evolution of the native oak woodland project. It can also be used to identify the most strategic areas for future interventions, e.g. areas with waterlines running through or sectors that have some existing oaks among the dense Portuguese Broom.

What’s more, our partners could begin systematically creating a custom cartography of the area and the work they have done to date, which would be put on a collaborative platform for academic use.

A Natural Engineer Specialist would be invited to the plantation area for a two-day workshop. Our team would receive an in-depth theory lesson on natural re-engineering techniques as well as a day and a half in the field building gabions and wooden dams along the waterlines of the property.

The gabions (large cylindrical cages or nets filled with rocks) and wooden dams (constructed from fallen trees and branches) would be installed at various points along the waterlines to slow the flow of water thus advancing the retention of sediments. By doing so, the various ‘dams’ would help prevent soil erosion, host habitats for small invertebrates and improve soil quality in the long term. Essentially it would mimic the natural behaviour of beavers that once roamed these streams.

It was a landslide victory (no pun intended) for the Natural Engineering Workshop, with the large majority of our members voting in its favour. The workshop took place on the weekend of the 4th & 5th of May 2019. We intervened in two water runoff lines, constructing 11 palistrades and 3 gabions.

Margarida Silva, Forest Engineer at Montis

By setting up these structures in the water courses (that in our case are not permanent all year round), will create areas of sediment retention, which will in turn decompose and fertilize the surrounding soil, instead of being washed way. In the last weeks we have already seen some sediment attached to the gabion nets and between the branches of the palistrades.

Building gabions & palistrades in waterlines slows the flow of water and advances the retention of sediments. Essentially mimicking the behaviour of beavers.

Natural Engineering

Every two months, our members are given the chance to vote for a rewilding project they want to see us carry out at one of our projects. Together with our partners, we select two or three options for high-impact conservation projects that support the rewilding vision for the area. 

For our first ever rewilding impact project vote, our focus turned to the ancient forests of the Southern Carpathians, where we work with Fundatia Conservation Carpathia (FCC), a local organisation working on the protection of the wild ecosystems. Here, our members were given the choice between installing a pair of camera traps or supporting ranger patrols in the existing old-growth forests of Romania.

Regular patrols and having a presence in the mountains really help protect the existing old-growth forests from illegal logging and poaching, as well as building a bridge between the conservation world and local communities. The intervention would help support a variety of expenses that includes salaries, fuel for the vehicles, vehicle repairs, and GPS equipment.

We returned to the Southern Carpathians the following spring on a tree planting intervention, where we had the chance to spend four days being guided by several of the FCC rangers. They are as passionate as they are knowledgeable about the mountains, and have seen a significant decline in illegal clear-cutting and poaching since they have had a regular presence in the area. The rangers believe that once local communities truly understand the value of preserving nature, which is happening slowly, such regular patrols will not be required. 

Our rewilding impact project has helped fund the ongoing expenses for vehicle maintenance and fuel for 2 rangers for 6 months.

Regular ranger patrols help protect Romania's existing old-growth forests from illegal logging & poaching, as well as building a bridge with local communities.

Supporting Ranger Salaries

To protect the old-growth forests of the Southern Carpathians 

Seaweeds are of immense value for marine ecosystems. Kelp, the largest of them all, form spectacular underwater forests that provide habitat for fish, clean the water and sequester carbon. Unfortunately, large swaths of these subaquatic forests have disappeared from the coast of many European countries. Although many factors appear to be contributing to this trend, there is still a lot we don’t know about the ecosystems engineered by seaweeds and this makes it difficult to carry out effective conservation and restoration work. We have partnered with SeaForester to come up with 3 projects designed to make large scale restoration of seaweed forests along the coast of Portugal a reality. Our members could choose between carrying out a kelp restoration trial, acquiring a sonar setup for seafloor mapping or acquiring a dropdown camera for seaweed monitoring. The kelp restoration trial was the option that won the vote.

Kelp restoration rewilding vote

Kelp Restoration Rewilding Vote

Kelp are large brown seaweeds belonging to the order Laminariales and are widely known for the impressive subaquatic forests that they form. In order to bring back these kelp forests to the areas from which they have disappeared it is important to test and refine available techniques. This project involves carrying out a trial to test the “spore bag” seeding technique to bring back furbellow kelp (Saccorhiza polyschides) to the coast of Cascais, Portugal where it used to be very abundant. Reproductive structures of the plant are collected from donor populations, placed in mesh bags and attached to the rocky reef identified for restoration. The idea is for the spores to be released from the reproductive structures, to settle on the underlying bedrock and create new patches of kelp forest.

The world’s shallow coastal areas, where sunlight penetrates, are the cradle of the ocean. Here seaweed forests grow supporting a rich and diverse assemblage of marine fauna and flora by providing highly productive three-dimensional habitats. Unfortunately, European seaweed forests are disappearing at an alarming rate. Although we lack the data to figure out the actual causes for this decline, these are likely to be important drivers in many areas:

Climate change affecting water temperatures

A build up of sediment as a result of both human and natural causes 

Increases in herbivory rates due to overfishing and its impact on coastal ecological communities

Unlike land-based deforestation which has received a lot of attention, the loss of marine forests tends to go mostly unnoticed. This may be due to the fact that the underwater-world is out of sight for most of us and its deterioration is therefore not as obvious. As result, there are still very few seaweed restoration projects in Europe and there is a great need to develop greater know-how in this area. This is where our partnership with SeaForester comes in.

SeaForester is an initiative that aims to reverse the alarming disappearance of seaweed forests in the world in order to safeguard the oceans’ vital role of carbon sequestration, maintaining fish stocks and securing the planet’s wellbeing. Along the coastline of the municipality of Cascais they are pioneering the work to identify the reasons for the decline in seaweed populations and to test seeding techniques. Therefore this project will not be carried out in isolation but will be integrated with other efforts to restore the area.  

Kelp restoration trial is a rewilding project designed to test the spore bag technique to bring back kelp to areas from which it has disappeared. 

Kelp Restoration Trial

Rewilding can help create a healthier, more resilient natural world. As we become ever more aware of the threats to our planet and the need to safeguard its future, rewilding offers us a crucial opportunity. But what do we mean by rewilding? The term is controversial and often misunderstood. It's frequently thought to refer to the reintroduction of apex predators, like wolves, to a landscape. Though this is often a piece of the puzzle, rewilding is about much more. Here we answer the question "What is Rewilding?"

For thousands of years, humans have changed landscapes and disrupted natural ecosystems. We've cleared large swathes of forest for agriculture, removed large carnivores from much of their range and changed the course of rivers. We're the ultimate ecosystem engineers and the natural world has suffered at our hands. In the face of climate breakdown and global extinctions, it’s now more urgent than ever that we not only protect what we have left but also restore and rewild the ecosystems that we have destroyed.

This is where rewilding comes in. Rewilding is based on the premise that nature knows best how to take care of itself. We can give it a helping hand and create the right conditions by restoring vital ecosystem processes like predation, grazing, regeneration and decomposition. For example, carnivores like wolves and lynx shape ecosystems in their role as top predators. They affect the numbers and behaviour of prey species and this has a knock-on effect on the other species in the ecosystem. The impacts of these carnivores can be felt as far down the food chain as the plant species, a phenomenon known as a trophic cascade. Today, initiatives across the globe are bringing these top predators back and restoring the species and natural processes that keep the Earth’s ecosystems healthy.

Ultimately, within a rewilded landscape there shouldn’t be much need for active management. Nature can look after itself better and more cost-effectively than we can. Rewilding is therefore about reducing human control over the land. It does not mean removing people from the land entirely. In fact, in these wilder landscapes, people and planet can flourish together.

Much of the bad attention that rewilding has seen has come from it being misunderstood and negative connotations attached to it. Our disconnect from nature certainly plays a role too. It’s easy to see rewilding as a scary, dangerous venture with wolf packs to be soon roaming through our streets. However, these are truly far-fetched notions. Learning more about how ecosystems work, the need for biodiversity, and the actual behaviour of animals, are the best ways to put an end to these damaging ideas. 

This is why significant effort must be invested in implementing rewilding projects so locals in close proximity are promised the security of their livelihoods. For farmers who already have financial burdens, an influx of top predators which could kill livestock would come as unwelcome news. Education and communication are absolute paramount to ensure those who may be affected, are given necessary resources and can mitigate against any potential impacts. Our project supporting livestock guarding dogs is designed to address one such issue.

When nature is healthy, it can provide us with abundant products and services, from food and medicine to flood defences and cool air. It offers rural communities economic opportunities through things like wildlife-based tourism. It makes us feel better too. Connecting with nature is good for our mental and physical health. Of course, it's good for the non-human animals that inhabit our earth too. Top predators and grazers are reclaiming lost ground across the globe while rare plants and insects are making a comeback in regenerating forests. These healthier, more intact ecosystems can also help us fight against climate breakdown by keep carbon stored in plants and soil.

To learn more about the benefits of rewilding, we also recommend reading our Reasons For Rewilding and Trophic Cascades articles. 

There are lots of opportunities for you to personally engage in rewilding, whether it is rewilding your garden into a wildlife-friendly zone of native wildflowers, writing to local councils to leave roadside verges uncut, or volunteering at your local wildlife trust or green space. You could also support one of the many conservation organizations working to restore the world's degraded habitats and protect endangered wildlife. Alternatively, you could sign up as a Mossy Earth member to contribute to monthly rewilding interventions across the globe. 

Rewilding can take on other forms too and by looking at the city of Singapore (the Garden City), we see their green initiatives and active encouragement of nature as true potential of what rewilding plans can look like.

Since the 1960’s, the city-state Singapore has been implementing strategies to ensure that they maintain and increase green spaces, despite the continued and unavoidable urban expansion. With a focus on improving living standards and welfare of its population, laws and strategies were put into effect which made property planners required to replant the same amount of green space as they remove for building. This has spurred a spectacular movement of green buildings and a lush verdant cityscape with forest cover actually increasing in stride with the city. 

Local areas of biodiversity have too been protected. Even on a simple walk around the city you can spot magnificent wildlife from giant otters to endangered langur monkeys or the unusual hornbill.

Rewilding focuses on restoring ecosystem processes. Landscapes are not restored with a fixed set of end goals in mind. It’s not about rebuilding what once was, but about supporting a constantly evolving, ecologically dynamic landscape. Through rewilding, we can create a future in which our natural world is allowed to work without interruption to shape our landscapes. In doing so, we can help bring wilderness back from the brink.

Climate Breakdown: Referring to the irreversible changes to the climate that are a direct result of human activity. It is a term that moves away from global warming and highlighting the urgency of action as unpredictable weather changes will become more common place. 

Decomposition: This is a state where organic matter decays, rots and is then turned into simpler matter which is transferred to its surroundings. This process is aided by microorganisms as well as fungi and bacteria which help disintegrate the decomposing matter.

Predation: The act of one species killing another as a food source. This interspecific relationship occurs when one species from a higher trophic level, preys on the species from a lower level of the food chain.

Prey Species: These are the species of lower trophic levels that are hunted by predator species for food.

Regeneration: When we talk about regeneration, we refer to the natural (or sometimes artificial) replanting of native forests. It is the re-growing of trees, where trees used to be. It’s preferable to stand back and let nature take its course although if the area has been heavily exploited, manual planting and extra care will be necessary to ensure growth

Rewilding is a positive approach to conservation based on that premise that nature knows best. Read on to discover the intricacies of what is rewilding.

What is Rewilding?

How Can It Help Create A Healthier Natural World?

The rewilding movement can often feel beyond our reach. It’s usually associated with vast landscapes of remote wilderness and large carnivores. While this is often the case, we can apply rewilding principles to our own lives. By rewilding your garden, balcony, or window boxes, you can help native plants and animals, no matter how small the area. Here, we’ve put together a list of things you can do to rewild your outdoor space.

Let your outdoor space get a little wild. We’re often used to the idea of tidy gardens but too much manicuring can strip your garden of its ecological value. Letting nature take its course in your garden space can provide food and habitat for a variety of species. 

If you have an area of grass, let it grow fairly tall before you cut it to provide shelter for wildlife. Let native flowers self seed on your lawn to provide pollinators with food, in turn attracting birds and other predators to your garden. 

Leaving piles of wood and leaves to rot provides habitat for an abundance of invertebrates, fungi, and moss and can provide a sustainable source of compost.

Garden centres will often advertise which species are good for bees, butterflies and other native insects. Providing food for pollinators will attract birds and other predators and create a thriving ecosystem in your backyard.  If you live in a flat, fill a window box with insect friendly plants to attract bees and butterflies. 

Non-native plants that are closely related to our native species can provide a wealth of benefits to local wildlife. Planting native species, however, will avoid problems with non-natives becoming invasive and will improve that chances that your garden will thrive in the local climate. If you decide to plant native species, make sure they are of genuine native stock and sourced legally.

Areas of concrete and short grass represent a barrier to wildlife movement. Plant borders and pathways to create a wildlife corridor for small mammals like hedgehogs. 

Encourage birds into your garden with feeders and boxes to nest in. Also consider planting fruit bearing trees to attract birds and squirrels. Install a bug hotel where native insects can lay their eggs. If you’re in an area with hedgehogs, you could also install a hedgehog hut.

If you have an area large enough, consider rewilding your garden with a water feature. A pond can provide habitat for a variety of amphibians and invertebrates. It’s also a source of water for small mammals and birds. You can create a pond with as little as a bucket and a few aquatic plants. 

Think Sustainably When You Rewild Your Garden

To create a sustainable outdoor area, recycle where possible, collect rainwater to use in place of tap water, and ensure your compost is peat-free. If you can, consider making your own compost. Propagate your own plants by buying seed packets or taking cuttings to avoid buying unnecessary plastic pots. Consider the 'no-dig method' of gardening that relies on the natural processes taking place within undisturbed soil. Proponents claim that by avoiding disrupting the soil life, beneficial organisms and microbes are able to provide nutrients and moisture to the growing plants. Our actions can have an impact on the natural world beyond our garden. These tips are designed to help you not just minimise your negative impact on the planet, but make positive impact on the world's flora and fauna right in your back garden.  

Ecological Value: From a given area, these values are determined to what the area benefits humans or animals. It is what the natural spaces provide and how we prosper from them. These values could include, clean air, clean water and good soil.

Invasive Species: Any foreign species of plant or animal that do not naturally occur in the ecosystem. Most often transferred by humans who release them unknowingly into an ecosystem they were not meant to be in and can cause ecological chaos.

Native Plants: Plant species that evolved and naturally adapted to an ecosystem. They are what many native animal species rely on for food as well as most suited for the local soil. 

Pollinators: Any animal species that carry pollen from one plant, to another, thus transferring the male gamete, to the female plant, ensuring fertilization. Bees are most commonly associated with being pollinators however they are also, moths, flies, beetles, birds and over 1,500 vertebrate species.

 Wildlife Corridors: The construction of safe passageways for animals to cross without being endangered by human activity. They are essential at providing a safe passage for animals who are migrating as well as to ensure wildlife populations can move freely between habitats without harm.

Rewilding your garden, balcony or window boxes, will help native plants & wildlife, no matter how small an area. Here's a how to guide to rewild your garden.

Rewild Your Garden

Rewilding your green space, will help native plants & wildlife

In this article, we’d like to showcase some of the amazing wildlife in Ireland, discuss their characteristics, their threats and their importance in an ecosystem, while also investigating whether there really is room for a return of wolves in Ireland.

The Great Irish Elk, an animal that has stood out in history for its towering size and unique morphology has been much lamented for its extinction. Although as it turns out it’s not actually uniquely Irish (or even an elk!) but found across continental Europe and Asia. So, 1) don’t tell anyone and 2) it might as well be, for this enchanting and mystical creature embodies the zoological wonders that Ireland once saw roaming throughout its ancient forests.

80% of the land on this small island in the North Atlantic was once covered in temperate deciduous forest. If we walked through these native woodlands, we could chance a sighting of brown bears, grey wolves, Eurasian Lynx and Wildcats. But it’s not just the megafauna that Ireland could boast about; but 450 bird species; a native lizard; and a myriad of fascinating insects. These animals highlight the range of biodiversity Ireland supported and hopefully can lead us to celebrate the species we still have and some that are starting to make a comeback.

A hen harrier has recently been spotted close to our Irish reforestation project for the first time in 20 years, rousing hopes that the native raptor will return indefinitely to this area of Ireland. A spectacular bird of prey, famed for the differences between male and female, the former is slim, streamlined and mainly silver-grey and white, except for black wing tips while his better half is larger, predominantly brown with fine black markings.

Hen harriers are also notorious for flying very low when hunting, flickering wing-beats followed by short glides and “quartering” systematically back and forth and across its territory in pursuit of small birds and rodents. Harriers are also an indicator species that tells us whether the ecosystem they hunt over is healthy.

Pine Marten – Ireland’s Rarest Native Mammal

The pine marten is Ireland’s rarest native mammal, with just 2,700 individuals remaining. They like to roam well wooded areas with plenty of cover while their dens are commonly found in hollow trees or fallen root masses. Though excellent climbers they prefer to hunt on the ground preying on small rodents, birds, carrion, beetles, eggs fungi and berries.

The greatest threat to wildlife in Ireland, and no more so to the pine marten, has been humans. The loss of woodlands and the persecution of hunters who fear they take eggs and kill game birds have led to the pine marten's demise. Despite years of persecution, numbers in Ireland are fortunately recovering, coinciding with their new-found value as a rewilding species. The resurgent pine martens appear to have rolled back the grey squirrel population, allowing red squirrels to recolonise much of their old territory. Unlike reds, grey squirrels appear to be easy meat for the pine marten.

Rewilding

How it works

Saving Slovakia's Ground Squirrels

Restoring Aspen

Cave clean up

Restoring Alaotra Gentle Lemur Habitat

Radio Tagging Atlantic Salmon

Building Eagle Nest Platforms

Rewilding:

An introduction

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