We have a range of reforestation projects that include the restoration of illegal clear cuts, areas destroyed by wildfires & former agriculture lands devoid of biodiversity.

Reforestation Projects

All of our rewilding projects have as their main aim to maximise the restoration of wilderness and the promotion of biodiversity.

Rewilding Projects

Restore wildlife habitats and support biodiversity.

Iberá - the shimmering waters of Argentina

The expansive wetland habitats of Iberá are famed for conjuring up picturesque scenes of entrancing wilderness. The land of ‘shimmering waters’ (‘iberá’ translated from Guaraní) also holds significant value as an area of special conservation interest. It’s situated in the Corrientes Province of northeastern Argentina in the heart of a subtropical plain encompassed by Paraná Atlantic forest, Chaco forest, open grasslands and shrublands. 

Within the park’s 758,000 hectares (comprising the Iberá Provincial Park of 600,000 ha and Iberá National Park, of 158,000 hectares) are some of the largest wetlands in South America. An estimated 4,000 species of flora and fauna contribute to the productive ecosystems in the diversity of marshlands, grasslands, forests and open water habitats. Of the many reptiles, mammals and birds, there are caimans, rheas, capybaras, many species of deer, armadillos, foxes, herons, storks and birds of prey. Endangered species such as the black-and-white monjita, the pampas deer, marsh deer, maned wolf, crowned eagle, and a large diversity of Paraná fish also take refuge in Iberá.

In the last century, a host of species in the Corrientes Province have succumbed to human pressures, either slipping entirely into extinction or greatly decreasing in numbers. 

Habitat destruction driven by factors such as agricultural expansion, and hunting, in which animals were killed for their feathers and fur, led to mass losses of wildlife. Jaguars, giant river otters, tapirs, collared and white-lipped peccaries, giant anteaters, bare faced curassows, red-and-green macaws, and the glaucous macaws went extinct in the wild on a regional, national and sometimes global level. While ocelots, along with pampas deers, maned wolves, lowland pacas, and red-legged seriemas suffered huge declines.

Since 2007, Rewilding Argentina (previously operated as CLT-Argentina, an NGO initiated by Doug and Kris Tompkins) has been working to reverse the extinction crisis, restore ecological health and create new economic opportunities in Iberá.

Iberá offers the right conditions to undertake ambitious multi-species reintroductions owing to its vastness and quality of habitats. Within Iberá - the nation’s largest protected area - the threats to animals are being managed. Nature-based tourism is the main economic activity, enticing nature enthusiasts from around the globe to come and observe animals of all kinds in spectacular settings. Surrounding the park, there has been a shift from cattle ranching and forestry towards nature-friendly land use. Members from the surrounding 10 communities are now trained as wildlife guides and work in ecotourism.

Some of the impressive rewilding work already undertaken by Rewilding Argentina has focused on recovering locally extinct or struggling species. In 2021, jaguars returned to the park after being absent for 70 years in a reintroduction project. Corrientes went from having no jaguars to being the province of the Argentinean Chaco with the highest number of this wild cat. Building on this experience and with the help of Mossy Earth funding, Rewilding Argentina has now set out to bring back another important predator - the ocelot.

The ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) is classed as a medium-sized wild cat, but sits only behind the jaguar and puma as Latin America’s third largest feline. With its beautifully patterned coat, the ocelot has an eye-catching appearance for us, but its dark rosettes and spots allow it to camouflage and blend into its habitat. Combined with a slender and agile build, it is well equipped to seek out its prey, which includes small birds, rodents and reptiles among medium-sized mammals, such as brown brocket deer and young capybaras. They are skilful tree climbers and patient hunters, known to wait 30-60 minutes before pouncing on their prey. Ocelots are adaptable species suited to numerous habitats from dry mountains, humid jungles, open grasslands, wetlands and deserts.

Ocelots are mesopredators (medium-sized predators) who play a crucial role in maintaining two important ecological relationships: predation and competition. By hunting prey and competing with or directly preying on other medium-sized predators like foxes, they regulate the abundance of these species, which has a cascading effect on the ecosystem and populations of other species. For instance, the establishment of a healthy ocelot population in Iberá will likely have a positive effect on some threatened species of grassland birds that are currently under high predation pressure from foxes.

The presence of predators also affects behavioural patterns of their prey. In Iberá, one of the expected impacts of an ocelot comeback relates to the grazing behaviour of capybaras. Faced with the threat of predation by ocelots, we can expect that capybaras will spend less time grazing and more time avoiding the predators, which will decrease grazing pressure in a given area and lead to more environmental heterogeneity. Rewilding Argentina is partnering with researchers and universities to study the long-term ecological impact of species reintroduction in Iberá.

Historically, ocelots were widely distributed with a range stretching from central-northern Argentina to the southern United States. Appearing in early civilizations through the artwork and mythology of the Aztec and Inca eras, ocelots were respected for their prowess as hunters in the animal kingdom. In more modern times, humans’ can be viewed more as ‘eradicators’ in this relationship. A booming fur trade in the 1960-70s for ocelot hides compounded by an accelerated rate of habitat destruction, caused ocelot populations to severely decline or go extinct in much of their original range. Habitat loss is the main threat that exists today due to deforestation and other human driven factors, such as agricultural intensification.

Ocelots are classified as vulnerable to extinction in Argentina. Small remaining populations have sought refuge in the humid forests and mountains of the north. In the Corrientes Province, only a few individuals have been recorded, being restricted to the extreme northeast of the province. In Iberá, the last sighting came from a camera trap of a single male ocelot in 2015. Without an effort to reintroduce the species, ocelots are highly unlikely to reoccupy Iberá naturally.

Mossy Earth is proud to be supporting Rewilding Argentina with an ocelot reintroduction project at Iberá park to recover the species. Through funds made available by our members, we are supporting one year of this ambitious 6-year project, the first ever ocelot reintroduction project worldwide.

This component of the project requires the diligent work of the Rewilding Argentina team, which incorporates experts and trained professional, to carry out the following activities:

Incorporate a minimum of four ocelots into the project (from the project total of 15 ocelots): ocelots to be donated by wildlife rescue centres and zoos in Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay and translocated to Rewilding Argentina’s quarantine centre.


Ensure the animals meet the necessary sanitary standards for eventual release: involving health checks, analysing biological samples, managing any treatable diseases and verifying the animals are disease-free.


Conduct the rehabilitation of animals within pre-release enclosures after the quarantine period ends, in preparation for their release: through placing the animals in pre-release enclosures to replicate their natural environment; incorporating live prey into their diets until the animals exclusively hunt for food; and facilitating mating encounters to produce offspring. The possibility of releasing females with their cubs will be evaluated. Individuals that show strong breeding capabilities during their time in captivity will be released to bolster the number of births and improve the self-sufficiency of new populations. 


Release a minimum of 4 individuals into Iberá park: between 4 to 6 individuals from the pre-release pens during two release periods during the year.


Monitor the adaptation of the animals post-release: the ocelots are to be fitted with GPS telemetry for tracking, which will monitor and assess their movement, acclimatisation and hunting ability. The animals will be supplemented with food if necessary and retrieved/assisted in the case they fail to hunt or require medical care. Long-term monitoring will continue to ensure animals’ survival and register reproductive events post-release.

To reach a self-sustaining population of ocelots in the park, the genetic variability of the reintroduced animals will be studied 4 years following the project’s completion. Based on the results, further interventions will be carried out if needed to improve genetic diversity.

There are potential risks of ocelot reintroductions for which this project has mitigation measures in place. In the case of the ocelots dispersing into populated areas, there is a possible threat to livestock and poultry. To address this, proactive measures include engaging with farmers prior to the release and promoting abundant wild prey for the ocelots. Reactive measures will involve adjusting husbandry practices and implementing night hours enclosures for livestock and poultry. 

Within Iberá park’s 758,000 hectares, the threats to the ocelots are either absent or minimal. Poaching is absent, extractive activities are almost non-existent and there are no permanent residents living in the park.

Taking a comprehensive approach to preparing for and adapting to post-release scenarios is essential in promoting a peaceful coexistence. The goal is to minimise risks for the local community, protect domestic animals and prevent conflicts.

Reintroduction programs are not a common conservation/rewilding strategy in South America. As a consequence, the supporting administrative processes are often cumbersome or entirely lacking. This represents a hurdle for this project to overcome but in doing so, it aims to pave the way for future species reintroductions on the continent. 

The experience and knowledge generated through this project will be used to improve reintroduction techniques for the ocelot. Results and methodologies will be published in specific bulletins, similar to those used by the IUCN. Additionally, a reintroduction protocol for ocelots will be drafted to be used by governments and organisations in Argentina or other countries interested in the species recovery. There will be an extended invitation to the field to learn from the project.

Part of this project’s vision is for Iberá to become a source of species to launch reintroductions elsewhere in the world. Already, there is expressed interest in reintroductions in Texas, US.

The comeback of one of Argentina’s most iconic cats presents an opportunity to enhance the appeal of Iberá as a unique wilderness destination for tourists. By communicating and documenting the arrival, release and adaptation of the ocelots, Rewilding Argentina and Mossy Earth aim to generate more interest among visitors and spread awareness of their role in a functioning, complete ecosystem.

The first two ocelots released into the wild in December 2023 were Tomi and Luna. Below are some images of them exploring their new home and a new arrival named Lila from Paraguay settling into the quarantine facilities in Argentina.

Project manager, Adriana, gives more background on this project with Rewilding Argentina.

We're supporting ocelot reintroductions in the wetlands of Iberá, Argentina - PROJECT DISCUSSION

Mossy Earth-Ocelot Reintroduction Project Final Report 2025.pdf

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Edited_Rewilding management plan templan v.2.pdf

We are supporting Rewilding Argentina in bringing back one of the great cats of the Americas to Iberá park in a pioneering reintroduction project.

Ocelot Reintroductions in Iberá

Supporting the recovery of an iconic predator in Argentina

Ocelots are one of the great wild cats of the Americas. These adaptable felines were once widespread across the continent, including the subtropical plains of northern Argentina. During the twentieth century, ocelot populations declined as they were hunted for fur and large swathes of habitat were destroyed. Today, the ocelot is virtually extinct across its original range in Argentina. Consequently, wild areas like the vast wetlands of Iberá shimmer less without this charismatic cat, which plays a crucial role in regulating other species. We are supporting Rewilding Argentina in a pioneering initiative to recover this species in Iberá - the first ocelot reintroduction of this scale worldwide.

We're Bringing Back Europe's Lost Butterfly Meadows

Butterflies and moths are part of the most diverse group of organisms in the animal kingdom - insects. Up to two thirds of our planet’s 1.5 million recorded animal species are insects with butterflies having their share of the diversity. There are 482 species of butterflies in Europe of which almost a third are endemic. But bugs are in trouble. Their numbers are declining globally at an unprecedented rate, butterflies being no exception. A third of butterfly populations are stated on the European Red List as in decline since 2009. To preserve these beautiful species and their rich biodiversity, we need to look at the strong bond between butterflies and their host plants.

Specialist Species: butterflies & host plant relationships

Some species of butterfly are monophagous meaning they rely solely on a certain plant species to lay their eggs for their larvae to feed on. Therefore, to create conditions for these butterflies, we must consider the conditions their host plants thrive in. For host plants of many European butterflies the optimal conditions are often maintained by grazing animals. This is because they require either short vegetation cover or they grow in places where the soil has been disturbed by animal hooves. 

The relationships between butterflies and their host plants can involve intricate and fascinating interactions. In some cases, butterflies will lay their eggs not only on a particular plant species, but also exclusively during certain stages of the plant’s growth. Take the Danube clouded yellow (Colias myrmidone) butterfly for example. The female lays its eggs individually on the tops of young shoots of plants belonging to the genus Chamaecytisus. The female searches for the fresh nutritious shoots because this is what her caterpillars feed on once they hatch. However, the host plant needs to be grazed regularly. If not grazed, the plants will go into a vegetative state and will stop producing the young shoots necessary for the caterpillar’s development. 

This intricate interaction between the butterfly and its host plant means that many butterfly species are very sensitive to changes in their environment. The Danube clouded yellow, for instance, has gone extinct from many countries of Western and Central Europe because of the changes in agriculture during the 21st century. The remaining populations are small and sparsely scattered in Slovakia, Poland and Romania, making it one of the most threatened of Europe’s butterflies. 

Shaping Europe’s Grasslands Through Grazing

Evidence from pollen analysis and the complex plant and animal communities found on European grasslands today suggests that the Post-Glacial landscapes of Central and Western Europe consisted of a mosaic of closed forests, open woodlands and grasslands. Arid conditions and the presence of megafauna, that roamed freely and grazed, were key factors in creating conditions for grassland communities to develop. Ancient species like bison, aurochs (wild ox) and tarpan (wild horse) were some of the natural grazers who would have grazed, trampled and disturbed European landscapes for millenia, maintaining a diversity of grassland habitats and the conditions for grassland species to thrive in. 

With the disappearance of grazing megafauna, traditional animal husbandry and grazing practices took over this function to some extent. Compensating for the loss of megafauna in this way allowed grassland species to survive. Today, many of the remaining biodiverse areas we see in Europe, particularly semi-natural grasslands, are heavily influenced by human activity. Coming as a positive side-effect of traditional farming practices, the most diverse grassland habitats we find in Europe today were maintained or created by grazing of domesticated livestock. However, several factors, including land abandonment and the shift towards intensive farming practices, has led to the degradation of many important habitats. The absence of grazing animals has impacted species within both grasslands and woodlands, who rely on open grazed areas, clearings, grass patches or open woodland margins. As such, the main threats to European butterflies are habitat loss and habitat fragmentation driven by changes in land use relating to:

Intensification of agricultural production: increased demand leading to habitats such as meadows being turned into cropland.

Abandonment of traditional low intensity (extensive) grazing and mowing for hay. A myriad of complex social and economical factors are believed to be causing widespread land abandonment in Europe. One of these influences comes from increased agricultural intensification that has moved farming from marginal areas using traditional farming to more productive lands elsewhere. Ceasing traditional farming practices in these marginal areas has led to the succession by shrubs and trees which gradually outcompete the flowering plants and grassess required by insects.

Use of insecticides: studies shows these pesticides are having harmful side-effects on butterfly and other insect populations.

The following issues are additional factors affecting butterfly numbers in Slovakia and the project area: misdirected subsidies for intensive large-scale mowing, especially mulching of meadows in the wrong time of the year; and past afforestation initiatives using pine trees.

Beckovske Skalice: a refuge for butterflies

Beckovske Skalice in West Slovakia is a hilly mosaic of different grassland and open woodland habitats situated in the middle of a river floodplain between two mountain ranges. Surrounded by urbanised and agricultural land, this place functions as a micro-reserve for pollinating butterflies, moths, bees and their host plants. The importance of the area for biodiversity is marked by its designation as a Natura 2000 protection site. The site was designated for the protection of rare moth and butterfly species, Jersey Tiger (Callimorpha quadripunctaria), Orange eggar (Eriogaster catax) and Danube clouded yellow (Colias myrmidone). 70 plus species have been recorded there with potentially just as many moths. Although recent monitoring didn’t detect the Danube clouded yellow nor the Orange eggar, they are believed to be present, just in very low numbers. The Danube clouded yellow is of particular concern with recent extinctions in Germany, Austria, Hungary and the Czech Republic, making it one of the most endangered butterfly species in Central Europe. In Slovakia, this species appears very sporadically, indicating it’s on the brink of extinction. Unfortunately, this trend is playing out for insects in general. Recent studies have flagged rapid declines in insect biodiversity and abundance across Central Europe.

Used in the past as a grazing site, the current state of Beckovske Skalice is unfavourable for both butterflies and moths as the overgrowth of woody plants is crowding out the open areas with butterfly host plants. Should the area be left to continue this progression, the remaining available habitat for butterflies, moths and other insects would ultimately disappear. 

The main objective of this project is to improve and expand the shrinking butterfly and moth habitats at Beckovske Skalice. To achieve this, we are collaborating with BROZ to recreate a mosaic of grassland and open woodland areas so insect host plants can flourish. This will involve adopting conservation grazing using husbandry animals as well as removing overgrown shrubs and trees.

Many of the threatened butterfly species at Beckovske Skalice are specialists that either feed exclusively on one plant (monophagous) or a few plants (oligophagous). These plants include those from the genus Thymus, aromatic perennial herbaceous plants, and from Chamaecytisus or Gentiana, both groups of flowering plants. The former are known to prefer low vegetation cover shaped by grazing, while the latter groups grow well in places where the soil has been disturbed by trampling. With this in mind, a few different grazing herbivores will be used for their differing grazing styles. Goats have been chosen because of their preference for shrubs and ability to access rocky terrain. Sheep, who graze low on the ground will benefit the habitat by keeping ground vegetation short in height, catering to some host plants. Browsers such as donkeys will also be added to keep succession by woody vegetation at bay.

It is not enough to reinstate grazing herbivores then to stand back. Due to the relatively small area, we will need to monitor the densities of vegetation and butterfly populations, and if needed carefully adapt the grazing pressure should there be signs of overgrazing or undergrazing. For this task, BROZ will draw on expert botanists and entomologists as well as from their experience of similar interventions in the region. For more details, see Monitoring below.

The other component of this project addresses the overgrowth of shrubs, especially the artificially introduced pines and non native acacia on the site. Without the grazers to keep the balance, these have gradually spread, consuming space and light needed by the butterfly host plants. Work has already begun to strip back some of this with 11ha (27 acres) being cleared last winter. However, there are still areas of open dry meadow and open oak woodlands that have to be cleared through laborious and careful work. Under the supervision of an expert the unwanted vegetation will be selectively removed while leaving the native trees such as oaks or chesnuts. Once the remaining overgrown areas of 6ha are cleared, the grazing area will total 17ha. 

Our goal with this intervention is to not only save struggling butterfly and moth populations but in doing so restore one of Europe’s most threatened habitats - oak wood pastures and dry orchid meadows. By creating more suitable habitat conditions, other pollinating insects such as solitary bees, bumblebees, grasshoppers and beetles also stand to benefit.

The project costs are shared between the project partners, with BROZ covering staff, travel and husbandry animal costs, while funds from the Mossy Earth membership will pay for materials and infrastructure for the grazing and the expenses for removing the overgrowth.

Expert botanists and entomologists will carry out the project’s monitoring to track changes in species abundance and composition. This will happen on a yearly basis, with reports to be published in 2026 and 2029. Following these, monitoring will be done every 3 years as a part of the regular monitoring of habitats and species of European importance conducted by the State Nature Conservancy.

To support butterfly populations in the long term, conservation grazing needs to be sustained. For this, the area is part of the LIFE Metamorphosis project and the After Life pledge. This agreement ensures the area will be managed for grazing until at least 2059. Following this period, grazing will depend on the availability of funding and agreements with local stakeholders.

Adriana Brossmannova, Project Manager @ Mossy Earth

For me this project stands out because it shifts the paradigm. It shows how people can not only coexist with nature but also that our presence can actually benefit nature.

This project expects to engage several stakeholders in a positive way. Firstly, the changes to the project site will benefit the landowner, improving the state of the land after years of abandonment. Secondly, a local farmer and restaurant owner will also use a part of the area to graze his animals. The cottage restaurant serves a selection of specialities made from sheep cheese produced locally, which could draw in more custom. Finally, there is the possibility of delivering a small boost to local tourism as a tourist trail runs through the site. An attractive butterfly meadow will no doubt add to the touristic appeal of the area. There is a local tourist club association that organises events and is willing to cooperate and create new trails. This aims to prevent crossings with grazing fences and to act as a source of information and inspiration on butterfly and insect species during excursions.

Broadly speaking, rewilding is often seen as an approach to conservation that removes the pressure of people on the land. In the case of European butterflies, the species and their habitats have continued to evolve in cultivated landscapes for thousands of years. Instead of removing humans from the picture completely, it is in fact, vital that our carefully managed influence on these semi-natural habitats continues in order to sustain these precious habitats and species. Our vision for this project is to reinstate human management of the land for a positive outcome for biodiversity.

Below is a selection of the stunning species recorded in the project area.

The Beautiful Butterflies of Beckovske Skalice

Mossy Earth project manager, Adriana, meets with Mossy Earth Community Manager Meija to discuss the project's objectives and to give more background on why it's needed. Also, check out our Transparency Dashboard where you can see all the species of butterfly we are trying to protect.

Butterfly Meadow project discussion w/ Adriana & Meija

Final and Spending report_SVK Butterflies.docx.pdf

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Restoring Rare Butterfly Habitats Management Plan.docx (1).pdf

This project applies conservation grazing to restore rare oak wood pastures and orchid meadows in Slovakia. Learn how grazing can help protect Europe's threatened butterflies.

Restoring Rare Butterfly Habitats

Using conservation grazing to restore oak wood pastures and orchid meadows in Slovakia

Butterflies are one of nature’s most eye-catching creations and best embodiments of beauty. They also act as important health indicators of their environment. Many butterfly species are specialists, meaning they require very specific food and habitat conditions to complete their life cycles. Consequently, this makes butterflies highly susceptible to environmental changes. Across much of Europe, both overgrazing and undergrazing as well as changes in forestry practices are affecting butterfly habitats and driving populations down. This project seeks to rewild a butterfly meadow in an area of Slovakia called Beckovske Skalice (near Beckov castle). We are working with BROZ to improve the conditions for butterfly and moth host plants through conservation grazing and clearing shrubs and woody vegetation from overgrown meadows.

We’ve released 803 squirrels at an airport - here’s why

Attractive to the eye, this small, bushy-tailed rodent likes to sit upright on its hind legs to peer across fields with its large, dark eyes on the lookout for predators. They are slender animals, equipped with strong legs and sharp claws, enabling them to excavate tunnel systems up to 2 metres deep with multiple entrances. Working together, they alert the colony to danger by letting out a distinct call allowing them to scuttle and seek shelter from predators. 

They hibernate individually in their underground chambers during the winter where they draw on vital body fat stores (using up to 90% of stores). This makes summer a crucial time when squirrels need to forage for a large part of the day to build up fat reserves. When they are not foraging, ground squirrels are busy burrowing, grooming, scurrying around, scent marking or looking out for danger. Contrary to popular belief, ground squirrels do not take seeds from fields to stock for winter as they hibernate in the winter months.

The European ground squirrel’s main range of distribution covers south-eastern Europe. Their range is divided by the Carpathian Mountains: to the west it extends to Czech Republic, Austria, Slovakia and Hungary into the Pannonian area of Serbia and Croatia; and to the east, the Transcarpathian region of Ukraine, Romania, part of Moldova, Bulgaria, south-east of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), north-east of Greece and the European part of Turkey. 

Typical habitat of the European ground squirrel is in the open, non-forested steppe grassland landscapes. Since many grasslands in Slovakia have been lost to agriculture and urbanisation, airports, golf courses and playgrounds have become modern day refuges for the remaining ground squirrel colonies. Slovakia’s largest ground squirrel colony (an estimated 15,000) lives at the Bratislava airport where they are safe from the threats of agriculture and urban sprawl. Other endangered species, like the grey partridge, also prosper in these man-made environments as they are mowed regularly to keep the grass suitably short (so they can spot predators) and are not treated with poisonous agrochemicals. 

An Important Figure of Grassland Ecosystems

As well as being a lovable, endemic animal, the European ground squirrel can some extent be considered a keystone species. Although not fundamental for maintaining the ecosystem, its presence supports other species of mammals, birds and insects and helps to limit the spread of invasive plant species. When ground squirrels vacate their burrows, others opportunistically move in. The European green toad (Bufotes viridis) or the smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) are two protected species that take shelter in empty ground squirrel burrows. 

Ground squirrels are an important prey for predators such as foxes (Vulpes vulpes), wild cats (Felis silvestris) and birds of prey such as the imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina) and the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). Certain rare species have also learnt to co-exist with European ground squirrels. This includes coprophagous species that feed on ground squirrel’s excrements such as beetles (Ontophagus vitulus and Aphodius citellorum). 

The ecological impact of ground squirrels also extends to some plant communities. As an important consumer of plant matter, they help control the spread of some species, including invasive species like the harmful silver-leaved nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium). 

Until recent decades, ground squirrel populations had been abundant, to such an extent that they were deemed ‘pests’ as recently as the 1960s. However, the situation has swung drastically in the other direction to the point that recently the species went extinct in both Poland and Germany. Sharp population declines have also occurred in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Moldova, Northern Greece, and Macedonia. As such, in 2019, European ground squirrels were classified as critically endangered on the European IUCN Red List. In Slovakia since the 1970s, a population decrease of 99% has seen this once familiar grassland rodent become restricted to small isolated populations. The most serious threats causing this alarming decline are:

Habitat Loss: due to agricultural expansion and urbanisation. 

Habitat Degradation: driven by changes in land use where traditional grassland management activities like extensive grazing and mowing are being abandoned.

Habitat Fragmentation: which decreases genetic diversity as the colonies cannot disperse and mix as easily. This has led to genetic drift and inbreeding which negatively affects the overall health of the species, decreases resistance to diseases and also the ability to successfully reproduce. Inbreeding causes females to produce fewer offspring (as few as 3 as opposed to as much as 8). Currently, only 3 of the 40 known populations in Slovakia have healthy genetics.

Further to this, ground squirrel population growth is also impacted by:

Food Availability: the lack of flowering meadows, insects and fruit trees in open landscapes.

Predation: by domestic cats and dogs also poses a threat. 

With such a long list of threats facing this species, its fate is dependent on collective conservation action that is swift and targeted. Should the worrying trend of genetic drift and inbreeding continue, inevitably the remaining isolated populations in Slovakia will further shrink and eventually disappear. The need to intervene now is vital to avoid a scenario where population reductions are so great that they can no longer reproduce successfully. 

As the species’ decline continues across Europe, effective conservation efforts by our partner BROZ in Slovakia have seen ground squirrel populations double in the last few years. This impressive outcome achieved as part of the LIFE Sysel project has been attributed to three key interventions:

Restoring habitat through improved grazing of grasslands.

Translocating individuals between isolated populations.

 In partnership with BROZ, we are focusing on continuing this upwards population trajectory by conducting more translocations. This effort is part of the wider LIFE project with national partners: Comenius University, ZOO Bojnice the Slovak State Nature Conservancy. 

The objective of this project is to translocate ground squirrels between populations to help facilitate gene flow and counteract the loss of genetic diversity caused by the fragmentation of their habitat. 

Details of the translocation are as follows:

To trap and translocate at least 600 individuals per year in the period 2023-2027 from 3 donor populations to simulate the natural dispersal process.

Individuals from 3 donor sites (the only remaining strong populations of ground squirrels with healthy genetics) will be released to 40 recipient sites during a 5-year period, where the small colonies have low genetic diversity. This translocation targets all known colonies of ground squirrels in Slovakia.

Two waves of capture and release will take place: spring and summer 2023. Young males and pregnant females are targeted in spring and juveniles during summer to mimic the natural dispersal when males seek mating partners, pregnant females build new burrows to give birth and juveniles disperse to establish new colonies.

A percentage of released individuals are marked for monitoring purposes.

The squirrels are transported in purpose-built wooden or plastic boxes. As ground squirrels are mainly diurnal (active during the day), the release takes place on the same day for those squirrels caught in the morning or on the next day if they are caught in late afternoon. The boxes are specially designed to reduce the risk of causing injury to the squirrels.

The squirrels are released into existing burrows called ‘shelter burrows’ which are 30 to 40 cm deep and excavated at an angle to help the animals quickly escape predators.

The recipient populations are monitored and the number of offspring recorded over the next few years. At the end of the project a genetic study will be carried out by BROZ to compare with the baseline genetic study done at the beginning of the project.

The translocations are informed by the results of a genetic screening study and expert guidance. This is based on the Action Plan for the Conservation of the European Ground Squirrel in the European Union and following a methodology from a Methodical Handbook on the restitution of ground squirrels in Slovakia as well as experience from previous ground squirrel restitution projects across Europe. Additionally, new colonies will be established on suitable sites throughout the project as recommended by the head zoologist.

This series of translocations follows on from the previous translocation in 2022 where 840 individuals were translocated. 

This project is pioneering in that it is the first known ground squirrel translocation project of this scale to include baseline data and follow up genetic screening studies. Prior translocations have predominantly focused on restitutions - creating colonies in areas where ground squirrels had gone extinct.

Mossy Earth members have supported the funding of €13,700 each year to cover staff and travel costs for the project. This builds on a previous project in which we supported dwindling ground squirrel colonies in Slovakia by providing supplementary feed and reducing predation pressure.

In this vlog, see how the European ground squirrel is becoming a symbol of conservation in the beautiful Muránska Planina National Park.

Setting up new Ground Squirrel colonies across Slovakia | VLOG

Before and after genetic screening studies will take place, conducted by researchers from project partners, University TUZVO - Technical university in Zvolen. The data to be collected and analysed includes basic biometrics of the ground squirrels such as weight, body length, tail length and the length of hind legs.

BROZ will compute a list of all translocated individuals and will monitor the squirrels in the new sites with the help of staff from Faculty of Natural Sciences, State Nature Conservancy and local farmers and volunteers. 

The results will be published by experts on genetics and small mammals and will also appear in the European Conference on ground squirrels in 2027 organised by BROZ.  

Further interventions will be assessed based on the results of the follow up genetic study to be conducted in 2026.

The chosen sites where the ground squirrels will be translocated to are eligible for a special programme of Agro-environmental subsidies in Slovakia. This will allow stakeholders who manage the sites to receive higher subsidies for the presence of the ground squirrels and favourable management of their habitats.  

The majority of the farmers are in favour of having ground squirrels on their land with some wishing for new colonies to be established (through restitution). This represents an opportunity for continuity of this wider effort, although restitution would only be possible providing ground squirrel numbers in Slovakia increase sufficiently and with good genetic fitness. Nevertheless, this is a positive sign and to add to this, awareness among farmers is improving. They usually come to witness the release of ground squirrels and are involved in reporting ground squirrel sightings of released squirrels. 

This project also has the potential to boost ecotourism. Ground squirrels are known as an attractive species capable of drawing in crowds.

Some images from the translocations in 2023

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Management plan_GS Translocations.docx.pdf

Translocations are deemed key in protecting the critically endangered European ground squirrel. Learn more about this project which is the most comprehensive translocation effort to date in Europe.

Translocating European Ground Squirrels

Boosting genetic diversity of a critically endangered grassland species

The European ground squirrel, aka the European souslik (Spermophilus citellus), is a charismatic rodent iconic to the open steppe grasslands of southeastern Europe. They are regarded as an umbrella species, which means having healthy squirrel colonies positively impacts other species in the ecosystem. Unfortunately, the numbers of ground squirrels are declining rapidly in much of the species range due to a destructive combination of habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation. In Slovakia, populations, which had numbered in the millions, have declined by 99% in just 50 years, making the species critically endangered. However, restoration efforts led by BROZ have seen remarkable results, doubling the number of ground squirrels in just 2 years. Translocating ground squirrels is believed to be a key factor to this success. Mossy Earth is proudly supporting the next series of translocations aimed at mimicking natural dispersal cycles and ensuring gene flow between isolated populations.

Even though numerous studies have demonstrated that termites can be powerful ecosystem engineers, very little research has been done on how we may harness their influence when working to restore degraded ecosystems. This case is made clear in a recent article titled that suggests termites are a forgotten insect in the field of restoration ecology.  In another article, the authors stress that studies are needed that actually test the use of introduction of soil invertebrates as a means to accelerate and increase the success rate of dryland restoration efforts. In other words, this is an area that is ripe for innovations that could have a wide scale impact. 

Before we explain the details of this project, let’s take a closer look at termites and the incredible impacts of their mounds.

What do termite mounds look like? and what's impressive about them?

Termite mounds are an architectural feat of the natural world. These large tower-like structures built by termites out of soil can reach a colossal 5 metres high - the tallest structure of any non-human animal and capable of housing a million termites! Not all mounds are huge though with sizes varying depending on the species and location, some are only several centimetres tall.

Inside the mound a complex network of tunnels, corridors, and shafts are built by a colony of termites working in complete coordination. Such is the sophistication of the design that termite mounds have inspired designs of natural cooling systems in some commercial buildings. The internal structure allows for the circulation of air, regulation of temperature and gas exchange. A chamber below ground hosts the queen in what can be described as one of nature’s most robust fortresses. A claim possibly proven by the fact that termite queens are thought to be the longest living insect on earth, up to 45 years!

More impressive perhaps, is the ability for these mounds to help fight off droughts and desertification. The system of tunnels within termite mounds allows water to infiltrate the soil better. Also, they bring plant material to their mounds which fungi decompose, changing the soil composition and structure. These effects help retain moisture better and provide nutrients for plants. This means plants have a better chance of surviving and recolonising from the first rainfall following dry periods.

This project is targeting termite mounds in the semi-arid area of northern Benin where areas of degraded lands are known as Bowé. They’re suffering from the process of degradation called Bowalization which is the result of soil erosion and soil hardening caused by drought and desertification. This is leading to:

low levels of organic matter, silt and nutrients but high amounts of potassium.

These impacts have negative consequences for the vegetation structure in the area. In the grasslands or savannahs the vegetation is typically dry forest, woodland, tree and shrub savannah and gallery forest. Bowalization is also causing a loss of biodiversity. 

The rate of bowalization is occurring at an alarmingly increasing rate (10 hectares/year from 1990-2010) in the Sudanian region of Benin. Up to 53% of the region, which makes up 6.7 million hectares of Benin, has become degraded savannah and farmland.

Although termites themselves are not considered at risk of extinction, their mounds face several threats including:

increasing drought frequency and intensity

In the case of human disturbances, mounds are often destroyed by local people. Some farmers remove mounds because they see termites as pests and are unaware of their water-saving capabilities, thus weakening their own defences against the encroaching desert.

The long-term objective of this project is to prevent and revert the process of bowalization in Benin by:

promoting termite mound conservation in the region and;

developing and implementing methods to use termites for ecosystem restoration.

A vital component of this project’s objectives involves addressing the knowledge gap in termite mound conservation. Specifically, knowledge of the distribution of termite mounds and monitoring their changes over time.

Further to this, the project sets out to assess the feeding preferences of termites from the region. Gathering this information will contribute to the knowledge needed:

to determine which sites are suitable for termite re-introductions;

to identify any other necessary measures for re-introductions of termites.

Providing the development of a captive breeding methodology is successful, this research can be used as a model for future restoration efforts elsewhere.

The first phase of the project aims to fill key knowledge gaps that hinder our ability to both protect and restore termite mounds in Benin.

1. Drone mapping termite mounds and vegetation 

The first objective of the project is to test drone mapping as a way to monitor termite mounds and vegetation over large areas in a cost-effective way. This is important because it will allow us to collect the data we need to better understand how the different components of the ecosystem are interacting to influence its vulnerability to desertification. This in turn will inform our restoration approach. We also expect that collecting this fine scale data over space and time will help plan efforts to preserve termite mounds in these areas where they are still playing their important ecological function.

Another question we are addressing has to do with the feeding preferences of the termites. We want to know which plant species they tend to feed on so we know which combinations of plant and termite species we should combine in restoration trials. Termites will be collected and taken to the lab for feeding tests. These tests involve exposing the termites to different plant species and monitoring their feeding behaviour. We expect that findings from the drone mapping and the feeding tests will compliment each other and will give us a better picture of what conditions the termites need to thrive.

3. Can we reproduce termites in captivity?

Finally, we will also be attempting a captive breeding experiment. In the lab, different conditions will be recreated and tested to determine if successful breeding takes place. Having termites form colonies in captivity would:

reduce the need to study the termites in their mounds in remote locations;

provide a source of termites to re-introduce to the habitat if they aren’t recolonising naturally in the ecosystem.

For the second phase of the project, we will apply what we have learned in a small trial to reverse desertification in Benin. If we want to use one of nature’s most impressive ecosystem engineers to restore degraded drylands, we actually have to start the trial and error process and that's what this next step is all about. The trial will happen close to Benin's National University of Agriculture where it will also provide students with an opportunity to learn about ecological restoration first hand. 

The trial will involve planting native tree species that have been found to be especially resilient to drought. This will be done in the form of a carefully designed ecological restoration experiment that will allow us to compare different approaches and learn what works best. Some of the variables we will be testing are:

Seed type: seeds collected from wild trees vary in size and shape and it is important to know if this affects germination success and survival rates.

Type of traditional water harvesting technique: Zai and half-moon are two different traditional approaches to shape the soil around planted trees to maximise water retention and tree survival. We want to know which of these works best in this type of degraded land. 

Termite colonisation: We want to know if termites will start colonising the site without being directly introduced.

Termite introduction: We want to know if termites can be introduced successfully and if this improves the restoration outcomes.

The termite species this trial will be focusing on are Cubitermes spp, Trinervitermes geminatus, Trinervitermes trinervius and Microcerotermes bellicosus as these are the most abundant species on bowé. 

The plant species are identified as the most adapted to bowalization and most resistant to climate change. These are Asparagus africanus, Andropogon pseudapricus and Combretum nigricans in the semi-arid climate zone and Asparagus africanus, Detarium microcarpum and Lannea microcarpa in the sub-humid climate zone. 

Any success at turning degraded and lifeless land back into a productive ecosystem will be beneficial both for biodiversity and for the local community.  By restoring bowé, more grazing space will be available to local herders whose cattle feed on annual grasses in surrounding areas during wet season. The trees we are planting also provide all kinds of food products and materials when they mature which can be exploited in a sustainable way.

Project results will also be disseminated during fieldwork and meetings with local NGOs, local training institutions, decision makers associations and communities. The idea is to share best practices so that existing areas are managed in a way that helps halt desertification and so that efforts to restore degraded lands in Benin are done using the latest evidence.

This project provides an important opportunity for our partners at Benin’s National University of Agriculture to develop useful know-how. Dr. Elie Padonou, who is leading the project is already an expert in this field but he is taking this opportunity to mentor Caleb Babatunde, his Master’s student. In this way,  we hope that will also be contributing to the formation of the next generation of researchers in a part of the world that really needs them but where funding can be hard to find.

All of this is made possible by the contributions of our members, who provide the funding through their monthly membership, and our business partners, Not Just Travel that have specifically supported this project.

Pix4D, a drone mapping software company, has kindly offered to sponsor our use of their software for this and other Mossy Earth projects. This is part of their ambition of using their technology to support nature conservation and restoration projects.

More updates on this project will be released in an upcoming video. Don’t miss it by subscribing to the Mossy Earth YouTube channel.

Below are some images captured during the drone mapping stage that show the potential of termite mounds to help 'green' the area.

A conversation with project manager, Tiago, on how this project came about and the promising potential of using termites to fight desertification in Benin.

Reversing Desertification - PROJECT DISCUSSION

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Termite Rewilding Management Plan (phase 1 & 2).pdf

Termite mounds help fend off desertification and harbour plant life in savannahs and drylands stricken with drought. This project will explore the potential of termites, native plants, soil & water based conservation to revert desertification.

Reversing Desertification

Exploring the power of termites and native plants to bring degraded drylands back to life

Nature works wonders. Termites and their mounds are a prime example. These little ecosystem engineers build mounds that aren't just aesthetically impressive, but also have an important ecological role in protecting savannahs against desertification. In the construction of their mounds, termites alter the soil structure so it retains more water. Their behaviour also increases the concentration of nutrients in the soil. These effects generate "islands of fertility" which often have a greater diversity and abundance of vegetation. Although these impacts are well researched, termites are rarely considered in direct conservation or restoration work. This long-term project aims to explore methods of reversing desertification and land degradation in areas of Benin, West Africa using termites, native plants, soil and water conservation techniques.

How we are reviving an Ancient Icelandic Wetland

A vital breeding ground for international waders

Iceland is a crucial hub for migratory birds, hosting the breeding population of 52% of the world’s Eurasian Golden Plovers, 27% of Eurasian Whimbrels, and 12% of all Common Redshanks. After breeding, these birds migrate south, linking Iceland to ecosystems across Europe and Africa. The Mýrar-Löngufjörur area is one of the country’s protected natural areas, where these birds of international importance come every year to nest alongside others, like waterfowl species. Its low-lying aquatic vegetation provides perfect shelter, with rich food sources available from plant material, invertebrates and other species.

In our project areas in the Kálfalækur and Blöndulækur watersheds, a combination of peatlands, shallow lakes and small wetland streams are home to a diversity of flora and fauna. Some of the species in the area include: Brown Trout (Salmo trutta), Dunlin (Calidris alpina), Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa), Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago), Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), Spiny quillwort (Isoetes echinospora), Lake quillwort (Isoetes lacustris), Rusty Hook-moss (corpidium revolvens), Lustrous Bog-moss (Sphagnum subnitens subsp. Subnitens), and the critically endangered European eel Eel (Anguilla anguilla).

One of the most remarkable lifecycles supported by Mýrar’s wetland ecosystems is that of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla). Traversing thousands of kilometres and transforming dramatically at different life stages, it's a story of endurance, metamorphosis, and survival.

Beginning life in its sole spawning grounds in the Sargasso Sea, eel larvae are carried up to 6,000 km via ocean currents to the coasts of Europe, where they metamorphose into glass eels. Icelandic wetlands become their home during a crucial growth phase that can last up to 20 years. Here, eels play important ecological roles as both predator and prey, before beginning their migration (without feeding!) back to the Sargasso Sea, where they spawn and die.

Peatlands are unique wetlands where waterlogged soils preserve partially decayed plant matter over thousands of years. The low oxygen levels slow decomposition, creating rich, carbon-storing soils in conditions that support specially adapted plants like mosses, sedges and grasses. Many of Iceland’s wetlands are special in that they contain soil properties, such Andosol and Histosol, not commonly found elsewhere in the world. Their fertile grounds often consist of deep intact layers of peat with high organic content. Soils can extend 1-3 metres in thickness that can store 33 to >100 kg C m−2, which exceeds global averages of carbon storage.

The peatland vegetation in our project area is mainly characterised by Common cotton-grass, which provides food and habitat suited to numerous species, particularly wading birds. While this vegetation still shows signs of its original wetland character, historic land use has altered water flow and plant communities significantly. 

A landscape impacted by drainage and channels

Last century, widespread drainage and channelisation reshaped Iceland’s wetlands. Between 1960s and 1990s, in attempts to improve food security and rural livelihoods, the government subsidised access to large excavators, which farmers in Mýrar used to drain peatlands, lakes and straighten natural stream channels to expand agricultural land. While areas of land were converted, not all attempts were successful in improving conditions for farming. Today, only small areas of land are kept for horses and sheep grazing. 

In the Kálfalækur and Blöndulækur watersheds, the channelised streams have led to the formation of barriers that disconnect freshwater habitats. They cut off vital spawning grounds for trout and blocked eels' migratory paths through the system. Habitats for other aquatic life have also been destroyed with reduced water affecting the integrity of the peatlands. Not only has this altered general ecosystem health, but it has increased carbon emissions as peatland conditions deteriorate and their carbon-storing powers diminish.

This project is an exciting opportunity to reverse some of the ecological damage in Mýrar by reconnecting freshwater habitats and reviving peatlands. Restoring these ancient wetlands not only supports local wildlife, it also provides crucial breeding and resting grounds for great migratory species, extending the impact far beyond Iceland.

In partnership with the Land and Forest Iceland, Fuglavernd/ BirdLife Iceland, the Marine and Freshwater Research Institute and the RSPB - Flyways Programme, we've identified these opportunities to improve the landscape. 

This project is the first phase of re-opening connectivity and restoring channels, lakes and peatlands in the wetland system. Our focus is on restoring two vital watersheds in the Mýrar region: Kálfalækur and Blöndulækur. Both areas have been heavily impacted by past land use, where peatlands were drained, streams were straightened, and fish migration routes were blocked.

Restore natural hydrological processes and flows to reconnect habitat for migratory freshwater species

Create and restore peatland habitat for more biodiversity, with a particular focus on breeding wader populations as an indicator of habitat function

If you want to see a lay of the land before reading our plans, view this 360° drone image.

Our Projects

Reforestation

Rewilding

Ocelot Reintroductions in Iberá

Restoring Rare Butterfly Habitats

Translocating European Ground Squirrels

Reversing Desertification

Restoring Ancient Wetlands

Red Kite Reintroductions in the Iberian Peninsula