We have a range of reforestation projects that include the restoration of illegal clear cuts, areas destroyed by wildfires & former agriculture lands devoid of biodiversity.

Reforestation Projects

All of our rewilding projects have as their main aim to maximise the restoration of wilderness and the promotion of biodiversity.

Rewilding Projects

Restore wildlife habitats and support biodiversity.

Iberá - the shimmering waters of Argentina

The expansive wetland habitats of Iberá are famed for conjuring up picturesque scenes of entrancing wilderness. The land of ‘shimmering waters’ (‘iberá’ translated from Guaraní) also holds significant value as an area of special conservation interest. It’s situated in the Corrientes Province of northeastern Argentina in the heart of a subtropical plain encompassed by Paraná Atlantic forest, Chaco forest, open grasslands and shrublands. 

Within the park’s 758,000 hectares (comprising the Iberá Provincial Park of 600,000 ha and Iberá National Park, of 158,000 hectares) are some of the largest wetlands in South America. An estimated 4,000 species of flora and fauna contribute to the productive ecosystems in the diversity of marshlands, grasslands, forests and open water habitats. Of the many reptiles, mammals and birds, there are caimans, rheas, capybaras, many species of deer, armadillos, foxes, herons, storks and birds of prey. Endangered species such as the black-and-white monjita, the pampas deer, marsh deer, maned wolf, crowned eagle, and a large diversity of Paraná fish also take refuge in Iberá.

In the last century, a host of species in the Corrientes Province have succumbed to human pressures, either slipping entirely into extinction or greatly decreasing in numbers. 

Habitat destruction driven by factors such as agricultural expansion, and hunting, in which animals were killed for their feathers and fur, led to mass losses of wildlife. Jaguars, giant river otters, tapirs, collared and white-lipped peccaries, giant anteaters, bare faced curassows, red-and-green macaws, and the glaucous macaws went extinct in the wild on a regional, national and sometimes global level. While ocelots, along with pampas deers, maned wolves, lowland pacas, and red-legged seriemas suffered huge declines.

Since 2007, Rewilding Argentina (previously operated as CLT-Argentina, an NGO initiated by Doug and Kris Tompkins) has been working to reverse the extinction crisis, restore ecological health and create new economic opportunities in Iberá.

Iberá offers the right conditions to undertake ambitious multi-species reintroductions owing to its vastness and quality of habitats. Within Iberá - the nation’s largest protected area - the threats to animals are being managed. Nature-based tourism is the main economic activity, enticing nature enthusiasts from around the globe to come and observe animals of all kinds in spectacular settings. Surrounding the park, there has been a shift from cattle ranching and forestry towards nature-friendly land use. Members from the surrounding 10 communities are now trained as wildlife guides and work in ecotourism.

Some of the impressive rewilding work already undertaken by Rewilding Argentina has focused on recovering locally extinct or struggling species. In 2021, jaguars returned to the park after being absent for 70 years in a reintroduction project. Corrientes went from having no jaguars to being the province of the Argentinean Chaco with the highest number of this wild cat. Building on this experience and with the help of Mossy Earth funding, Rewilding Argentina has now set out to bring back another important predator - the ocelot.

The ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) is classed as a medium-sized wild cat, but sits only behind the jaguar and puma as Latin America’s third largest feline. With its beautifully patterned coat, the ocelot has an eye-catching appearance for us, but its dark rosettes and spots allow it to camouflage and blend into its habitat. Combined with a slender and agile build, it is well equipped to seek out its prey, which includes small birds, rodents and reptiles among medium-sized mammals, such as brown brocket deer and young capybaras. They are skilful tree climbers and patient hunters, known to wait 30-60 minutes before pouncing on their prey. Ocelots are adaptable species suited to numerous habitats from dry mountains, humid jungles, open grasslands, wetlands and deserts.

Ocelots are mesopredators (medium-sized predators) who play a crucial role in maintaining two important ecological relationships: predation and competition. By hunting prey and competing with or directly preying on other medium-sized predators like foxes, they regulate the abundance of these species, which has a cascading effect on the ecosystem and populations of other species. For instance, the establishment of a healthy ocelot population in Iberá will likely have a positive effect on some threatened species of grassland birds that are currently under high predation pressure from foxes.

The presence of predators also affects behavioural patterns of their prey. In Iberá, one of the expected impacts of an ocelot comeback relates to the grazing behaviour of capybaras. Faced with the threat of predation by ocelots, we can expect that capybaras will spend less time grazing and more time avoiding the predators, which will decrease grazing pressure in a given area and lead to more environmental heterogeneity. Rewilding Argentina is partnering with researchers and universities to study the long-term ecological impact of species reintroduction in Iberá.

Historically, ocelots were widely distributed with a range stretching from central-northern Argentina to the southern United States. Appearing in early civilizations through the artwork and mythology of the Aztec and Inca eras, ocelots were respected for their prowess as hunters in the animal kingdom. In more modern times, humans’ can be viewed more as ‘eradicators’ in this relationship. A booming fur trade in the 1960-70s for ocelot hides compounded by an accelerated rate of habitat destruction, caused ocelot populations to severely decline or go extinct in much of their original range. Habitat loss is the main threat that exists today due to deforestation and other human driven factors, such as agricultural intensification.

Ocelots are classified as vulnerable to extinction in Argentina. Small remaining populations have sought refuge in the humid forests and mountains of the north. In the Corrientes Province, only a few individuals have been recorded, being restricted to the extreme northeast of the province. In Iberá, the last sighting came from a camera trap of a single male ocelot in 2015. Without an effort to reintroduce the species, ocelots are highly unlikely to reoccupy Iberá naturally.

Mossy Earth is proud to be supporting Rewilding Argentina with an ocelot reintroduction project at Iberá park to recover the species. Through funds made available by our members, we are supporting one year of this ambitious 6-year project, the first ever ocelot reintroduction project worldwide.

This component of the project requires the diligent work of the Rewilding Argentina team, which incorporates experts and trained professional, to carry out the following activities:

Incorporate a minimum of four ocelots into the project (from the project total of 15 ocelots): ocelots to be donated by wildlife rescue centres and zoos in Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay and translocated to Rewilding Argentina’s quarantine centre.


Ensure the animals meet the necessary sanitary standards for eventual release: involving health checks, analysing biological samples, managing any treatable diseases and verifying the animals are disease-free.


Conduct the rehabilitation of animals within pre-release enclosures after the quarantine period ends, in preparation for their release: through placing the animals in pre-release enclosures to replicate their natural environment; incorporating live prey into their diets until the animals exclusively hunt for food; and facilitating mating encounters to produce offspring. The possibility of releasing females with their cubs will be evaluated. Individuals that show strong breeding capabilities during their time in captivity will be released to bolster the number of births and improve the self-sufficiency of new populations. 


Release a minimum of 4 individuals into Iberá park: between 4 to 6 individuals from the pre-release pens during two release periods during the year.


Monitor the adaptation of the animals post-release: the ocelots are to be fitted with GPS telemetry for tracking, which will monitor and assess their movement, acclimatisation and hunting ability. The animals will be supplemented with food if necessary and retrieved/assisted in the case they fail to hunt or require medical care. Long-term monitoring will continue to ensure animals’ survival and register reproductive events post-release.

To reach a self-sustaining population of ocelots in the park, the genetic variability of the reintroduced animals will be studied 4 years following the project’s completion. Based on the results, further interventions will be carried out if needed to improve genetic diversity.

There are potential risks of ocelot reintroductions for which this project has mitigation measures in place. In the case of the ocelots dispersing into populated areas, there is a possible threat to livestock and poultry. To address this, proactive measures include engaging with farmers prior to the release and promoting abundant wild prey for the ocelots. Reactive measures will involve adjusting husbandry practices and implementing night hours enclosures for livestock and poultry. 

Within Iberá park’s 758,000 hectares, the threats to the ocelots are either absent or minimal. Poaching is absent, extractive activities are almost non-existent and there are no permanent residents living in the park.

Taking a comprehensive approach to preparing for and adapting to post-release scenarios is essential in promoting a peaceful coexistence. The goal is to minimise risks for the local community, protect domestic animals and prevent conflicts.

Reintroduction programs are not a common conservation/rewilding strategy in South America. As a consequence, the supporting administrative processes are often cumbersome or entirely lacking. This represents a hurdle for this project to overcome but in doing so, it aims to pave the way for future species reintroductions on the continent. 

The experience and knowledge generated through this project will be used to improve reintroduction techniques for the ocelot. Results and methodologies will be published in specific bulletins, similar to those used by the IUCN. Additionally, a reintroduction protocol for ocelots will be drafted to be used by governments and organisations in Argentina or other countries interested in the species recovery. There will be an extended invitation to the field to learn from the project.

Part of this project’s vision is for Iberá to become a source of species to launch reintroductions elsewhere in the world. Already, there is expressed interest in reintroductions in Texas, US.

The comeback of one of Argentina’s most iconic cats presents an opportunity to enhance the appeal of Iberá as a unique wilderness destination for tourists. By communicating and documenting the arrival, release and adaptation of the ocelots, Rewilding Argentina and Mossy Earth aim to generate more interest among visitors and spread awareness of their role in a functioning, complete ecosystem.

The first two ocelots released into the wild in December 2023 were Tomi and Luna. Below are some images of them exploring their new home and a new arrival named Lila from Paraguay settling into the quarantine facilities in Argentina.

Project manager, Adriana, gives more background on this project with Rewilding Argentina.

We're supporting ocelot reintroductions in the wetlands of Iberá, Argentina - PROJECT DISCUSSION

Mossy Earth-Ocelot Reintroduction Project Final Report 2025.pdf

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Edited_Rewilding management plan templan v.2.pdf

We are supporting Rewilding Argentina in bringing back one of the great cats of the Americas to Iberá park in a pioneering reintroduction project.

Ocelot Reintroductions in Iberá

Supporting the recovery of an iconic predator in Argentina

Ocelots are one of the great wild cats of the Americas. These adaptable felines were once widespread across the continent, including the subtropical plains of northern Argentina. During the twentieth century, ocelot populations declined as they were hunted for fur and large swathes of habitat were destroyed. Today, the ocelot is virtually extinct across its original range in Argentina. Consequently, wild areas like the vast wetlands of Iberá shimmer less without this charismatic cat, which plays a crucial role in regulating other species. We are supporting Rewilding Argentina in a pioneering initiative to recover this species in Iberá - the first ocelot reintroduction of this scale worldwide.

How we are reviving an Ancient Icelandic Wetland

A vital breeding ground for international waders

Iceland is a crucial hub for migratory birds, hosting the breeding population of 52% of the world’s Eurasian Golden Plovers, 27% of Eurasian Whimbrels, and 12% of all Common Redshanks. After breeding, these birds migrate south, linking Iceland to ecosystems across Europe and Africa. The Mýrar-Löngufjörur area is one of the country’s protected natural areas, where these birds of international importance come every year to nest alongside others, like waterfowl species. Its low-lying aquatic vegetation provides perfect shelter, with rich food sources available from plant material, invertebrates and other species.

In our project areas in the Kálfalækur and Blöndulækur watersheds, a combination of peatlands, shallow lakes and small wetland streams are home to a diversity of flora and fauna. Some of the species in the area include: Brown Trout (Salmo trutta), Dunlin (Calidris alpina), Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa), Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago), Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), Spiny quillwort (Isoetes echinospora), Lake quillwort (Isoetes lacustris), Rusty Hook-moss (corpidium revolvens), Lustrous Bog-moss (Sphagnum subnitens subsp. Subnitens), and the critically endangered European eel Eel (Anguilla anguilla).

One of the most remarkable lifecycles supported by Mýrar’s wetland ecosystems is that of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla). Traversing thousands of kilometres and transforming dramatically at different life stages, it's a story of endurance, metamorphosis, and survival.

Beginning life in its sole spawning grounds in the Sargasso Sea, eel larvae are carried up to 6,000 km via ocean currents to the coasts of Europe, where they metamorphose into glass eels. Icelandic wetlands become their home during a crucial growth phase that can last up to 20 years. Here, eels play important ecological roles as both predator and prey, before beginning their migration (without feeding!) back to the Sargasso Sea, where they spawn and die.

Peatlands are unique wetlands where waterlogged soils preserve partially decayed plant matter over thousands of years. The low oxygen levels slow decomposition, creating rich, carbon-storing soils in conditions that support specially adapted plants like mosses, sedges and grasses. Many of Iceland’s wetlands are special in that they contain soil properties, such Andosol and Histosol, not commonly found elsewhere in the world. Their fertile grounds often consist of deep intact layers of peat with high organic content. Soils can extend 1-3 metres in thickness that can store 33 to >100 kg C m−2, which exceeds global averages of carbon storage.

The peatland vegetation in our project area is mainly characterised by Common cotton-grass, which provides food and habitat suited to numerous species, particularly wading birds. While this vegetation still shows signs of its original wetland character, historic land use has altered water flow and plant communities significantly. 

A landscape impacted by drainage and channels

Last century, widespread drainage and channelisation reshaped Iceland’s wetlands. Between 1960s and 1990s, in attempts to improve food security and rural livelihoods, the government subsidised access to large excavators, which farmers in Mýrar used to drain peatlands, lakes and straighten natural stream channels to expand agricultural land. While areas of land were converted, not all attempts were successful in improving conditions for farming. Today, only small areas of land are kept for horses and sheep grazing. 

In the Kálfalækur and Blöndulækur watersheds, the channelised streams have led to the formation of barriers that disconnect freshwater habitats. They cut off vital spawning grounds for trout and blocked eels' migratory paths through the system. Habitats for other aquatic life have also been destroyed with reduced water affecting the integrity of the peatlands. Not only has this altered general ecosystem health, but it has increased carbon emissions as peatland conditions deteriorate and their carbon-storing powers diminish.

This project is an exciting opportunity to reverse some of the ecological damage in Mýrar by reconnecting freshwater habitats and reviving peatlands. Restoring these ancient wetlands not only supports local wildlife, it also provides crucial breeding and resting grounds for great migratory species, extending the impact far beyond Iceland.

In partnership with the Land and Forest Iceland, Fuglavernd/ BirdLife Iceland, the Marine and Freshwater Research Institute and the RSPB - Flyways Programme, we've identified these opportunities to improve the landscape. 

This project is the first phase of re-opening connectivity and restoring channels, lakes and peatlands in the wetland system. Our focus is on restoring two vital watersheds in the Mýrar region: Kálfalækur and Blöndulækur. Both areas have been heavily impacted by past land use, where peatlands were drained, streams were straightened, and fish migration routes were blocked.

Restore natural hydrological processes and flows to reconnect habitat for migratory freshwater species

Create and restore peatland habitat for more biodiversity, with a particular focus on breeding wader populations as an indicator of habitat function

If you want to see a lay of the land before reading our plans, view this 360° drone image.

In both watersheds, we’re restoring natural stream channels and removing barriers that prevent migratory freshwater fish from reaching spawning and feeding grounds. This will be done by removing four man-made barriers and regrading the watercourses. 

Beginning with Stream Bretalækur in the Kálfalækur watershed, two barriers are being removed and redesigned using a natural step-pool approach. This involves closing drainage ditches that were cut into natural streams, diverting flows and causing the build up of barriers in the streams. By closing these ditches and re-profiling the area into step-pools, we will allow the flow to reach Lake Bretavatn. In doing so, this opens up 30.6 ha of feeding grounds for trout, connecting them from spawning grounds in the stream. Other species, including birds, will also benefit from the restored habitat, with islets in the lakes also providing breeding areas. This phase will improve the freshwater connectivity of the system by another 4 km.

In the Blöndulækur watershed, we’re removing another two barriers to open access to two small restored lakes, which in turn will connect three lakes across the watershed. To do this, full channel realignments will replace artificial drainage ditches. For both barriers, we will close the channel and build more natural connections by redesigning the flow between lakes. Creating longer, more natural bends provides more habitat for aquatic organisms as well as helps prevent erosion, which could dramatically lead to the lakes draining again. By replicating natural and physical processes as much as possible, we are trying to ensure the re-opened watercourse is physically stable for the long-term.  

The restoration work in Blöndulækur will result in critically endangered eel gaining access to two more lakes, which is 21.6 ha of new habitat. With the lakes reconnecting to 6.3 km stream habitat, this benefits both resident and anadromous trout who also access more vital habitat. Once the final obstacle is removed, there will be an uninterrupted flow that extends 16 km from the headwaters out to sea.

As part of the restoration, any fish present will be carefully rescued using electrofishing to safely move trout and endangered eels upstream before barriers are removed. In parallel, we're studying fish populations in affected lakes by trapping, measuring, and tagging eel and trout. The data will help us estimate population sizes, track their movement between lakes and understand their age and growth through scale analysis.

In total, 3,362 meters of surrounding drainage ditches will be closed, allowing the peatlands to re-wet and the water table to rise. As natural flows are restored, the decomposition of organic matter will slow and reduce GHG emissions, and conditions for peatland vegetation will improve. Overall, these changes will boost ecosystem health, benefiting many species but especially vital for wading birds and waterfowls, which rely on these wetlands being intact and healthy habitats to breed.

This project also seeks to engage stakeholders like landowners in the process of restoring their lands. They will be supported and guided on how to track changes to the wetlands by being fully involved in the monitoring. Through active participation, our ambition is to demonstrate a new, more holistic model of wetland restoration— one which both biodiversity and people benefit.

Different angles of Mýrar's inland wetland ecosystem, including its inhabitants and species, the migration barriers and spectacular Icelandic scenery. 

To measure the impact of our actions, the project team monitors key indicators and compares outcomes to the baseline scenario. Some of the areas we’ll be looking to assess include changes in watercourse topology, peatland water table levels, wader populations, and where possible breeding densities recorded. Any relevant results that are gathered will be shared more widely through the RSPB Flyways Programme— a network of conservation sites aimed at protecting vital habitats for migratory birds along the East Atlantic Flyway.

Mossy Earth is providing €135,364 of the total budget of €157,483 to cover staffing, engineer contractors, equipment, travel and monitoring costs.

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Closing ditches and removing barriers to rewet peatland and reconnect crucial freshwater habitat in the inland wetlands of Mýrar, West Iceland.

Restoring Ancient Wetlands

Closing ditches and removing barriers to rewet peatland and reconnect crucial freshwater habitat

The inland wetland of Mýrar in West Iceland is an ancient freshwater ecosystem of international importance. Its expansive freshwater habitats are resting places for migratory birds, some of whose global populations rely on them as breeding grounds. Within its many lakes and streams, species like the critically endangered eel feed and grow during epic migrations. In two key catchments of the Mýrar wetlands, we’re supporting the first wetland restoration project of its kind in Iceland for freshwater species. The goals? To unblock migratory paths, rewet drained peatlands and restore flows that connect all the way out to sea.

One year ago we created a reef - now it's full of life

Coral reef ecosystems support the highest biodiversity of any ecosystem globally. To many that have experienced the captivating world of coral reefs, their beauty and biodiversity is unparalleled. These underwater realms offer a sensory explosion of colours, textures and life.

Within this complex and intricate ecosystem, interdependent communities of organisms and animals thrive. A dazzling array of diversity lives in the 3-dimensional labyrinths of coral reefs, where all kinds of creatures seek shelter in its nooks and crannies. Countless types of algae, sponges, marine worms, echinoderms, molluscs, crustaceans, fish and of course, corals inhibit reefs. 

Considered the backbone of the ecosystem, coral species come in all shapes, sizes and colours. Ranging from the delicate, branching structures of staghorn corals to the huge, brain-like formations of massive corals. Up to 750 species could exist on one coral reef alone!

Beyond their aesthetic and ecological value, coral reefs also serve other vital purposes. An estimated 30 million of the world’s poorest people depend entirely on coral reefs to provide food. Worldwide, an even greater 500 million people rely on coral reefs directly or indirectly for livelihoods, food and other resources. 

Acting as a physical barrier, coral reefs are a natural defence for coastlines from tidal surges, extreme weather events, ocean currents, and winds. This prevents coastal erosion, flooding and a loss of infrastructure, which equates to significant cost reductions in damage to coastlines and displacement of communities. It’s estimated the potential annual benefit is 314 million USD for coastal protection in Indonesia. 

Coral reefs are also a key part of land accretion. During this natural process, pounding waves break down pieces of calcified coral that wash up and add layer upon layer to beaches. 

In terms of culture, coral reefs hold significant intrinsic and recreational value. They are easily accessible playgrounds and main attractions for tourists, divers, snorkelers and recreational fishing.

Coral also contributes to blue carbon (CO2 stored in the ocean) when corals combine with other coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves and seagrass, and plays a role in carbon cycling in reefs (CaCO3).

Given some coral reefs take millions of years to form, the current rate of their destruction is a major concern for the health of our planet. There are estimates that a frightening 50% of coral reefs have been lost in the last 30 years.The IUCN Red List Index of species survival 1980-2012, states their decline during this period has been faster than birds, mammals and amphibians. 

Projections from the IPCC reports (2018) warn of further bleak scenarios. According to some climate models, even with the Paris Agreement target of a 1.5℃ increase in global warming, subsequent bleaching events could lead to 90% of all coral reefs disappearing.

The major threats facing coral reefs around the world include:

Global Warming and Climate Change: Greenhouse gas emissions have led to increases in global surface temperatures, consequently causing unprecedented mass coral bleaching events. 

Overexploitation (overfishing): The global demand for fish has doubled in the last 50 years. It’s been calculated that the Indonesian archipelago provided 60% of the live fish food trade during the 1990s. Coral reefs are vulnerable to this effect due to being easily accessible by small boats.

Destructive fishing: Despite now being illegal in South and Southeast Asia, severe damage has been done through practices such as purse seining, fine-mesh fishing, ‘moxy’ nets, cyanide fishing and blast fishing. Over half of Indonesia’s coral reefs have been threatened by destructive fishing activities.

Sediment, chemical and nutrient pollution: Human developments, such as the construction of resorts, ports and urban areas, can greatly impact coral reefs from increased water runoff as excessive amounts of sediment are deposited into the ocean. This erosion transports particulate matter, sewage, or dangerous levels of nutrients from agricultural activities. All this can lead to coral reefs being smothered and triggering eutrophication, where toxic algal blooms and decreased oxygen levels severely affect life on the reef.

Other threats and disturbances include: natural disasters and extreme weather events, predator outbreaks, invasive species, irresponsible tourism, coral mining and harmful trades such as the aquarium industry and trinket trade.

Coral Bleaching -  the canary in the coral mine

Coral bleaching occurs when there is a breakdown in the mutualistic relationship between zooxanthellae and coral polyps (learn more below). The algal cells respond to high water temperatures by producing an irritant instead of food. This causes the polyp to stress and expel their food-producing algal cells. The ‘white’ bleaching effect is due to the loss of zooxanthellae. 

Bleaching happens when water temperature increases of 1–2°C are sustained for several weeks. These are referred to as the ‘canary in the coral mine’ situations that serve as an early indication of coral sensitivity to lethal conditions. Prolonged bleaching results in the tragic large-scale die-off of coral in mass bleaching events. 

Coral Reef Restoration - a tool in the box

Critics argue coral reef restoration methods do not address the main issue affecting reef declines - climate change and the resulting warming of our oceans. Although restoration methods are not intended to impact the climate, they serve as a useful tool in the box needed to sustain reefs amidst increasing pressures. Rather than being a silver bullet, they are designed to build reef resilience by maintaining or repairing key ecosystem processes, functions and services. Restoration is particularly important for local contexts where natural coral recolonisation is limited and threats can be mitigated. 

To give coral reefs the best possible chance of surviving into the future, action needs to be taken on multiple fronts. It is important to vigorously pursue climate action, a reduction in anthropogenic pressures and effective coral reef restoration in conjunction.

Our restoration site falls within the Nusa Penida Marine Protected Area (MPA) at a dive site locally known as Pura Mas Gading. It is located in the North of Nusa Penida around a hundred metres off the coast at Sental Kangin Beach, Ped Village. It is well known for its longshore currents, providing a nice drift dive for scuba divers. 

Although the MPA was established in 2010 with strict monitoring of tourism and fisheries zones, unfortunately this hasn't always been the case. The areas of reef we are targeting have been degraded to a state of coral rubble from overexploitation, predominantly from dynamite fishing. When coral rubble accumulates, it becomes a coral rubble field which is constantly shifting in the currents and swells. 

This movement of loose rubble will damage, dislodge and smother any young coral polyps that try to establish within this area, preventing natural regeneration of damaged reefs from occurring. 

The current state of the coral at Pura Mas demands what’s referred to as ‘emergency restoration’ to repair ecosystem functionality in the UN’s guide ‘Coral reef restoration as a strategy to improve ecosystem services’. 

The overarching aim of this restoration activity is to restore the live coral substrate within 0.9 ha of the Mas Gading Temple area in the northern waters of Nusa Penida. 

The first stage is to stabilise the coral substrate so it can’t damage young coral and kickstart natural regeneration. The rubble areas we are prioritising are full of debris with some areas of algae, which is preventing the neighbouring healthy coral from spilling over and naturally colonising the area. 

How we aim to restart the recolonisation process:

To stabilise the substrate and encourage recolonisation, we will produce and install around 5,000 artificial reef restoration structures within rubble areas between 2024-2025. These metal hexagonal structures (inspired by MARS Reef Stars) are secured to the seabed using stakes. Around 50 cm in diameter, they tessellate together to form something akin to a very large net to hold down the loose rubble. Before the structures enter the water, we coat them in resin and sand to protect against erosion and promote coral attachment.

To create source populations of corals within the rubble areas, we will attach 12-15 transplanted coral fragments onto each restoration structure. The coral fragments are loose pieces of coral that have naturally dislodged from a substrate due to environmental conditions, such as strong currents as well as the action of corallivores (animals that feed on coral), like parrotfish. Our team collect a range of coral fragments to ensure a suitable level of species diversity within the area that would mimic the natural colonisation of a new reef.

To reduce macro-algae locally to the reef structures and facilitate coral growth and establishment, we will regularly monitor the structures. This is to not only brush off any algae smothering our coral fragments, but also to visually inspect the health of the fragments, checking for calcium carbonate deposition. Stressed corals will deposit little calcium carbonate, whereas thriving corals will be actively expanding their corallite skeleton.

These are some of the species we have transplanted at Pura Mas:

Acropora, Montipora, Symphyllia, Seriatopora, Stylophora, Caulastrea, Fungia, Montastraea, Porites, Turbinaria, Echinopora, Platigyra and Goniopora

Follow the progress for Wilder Reefs through our main YouTube videos and regular vlogs on our second channel - Mossy Earth Field Notes.

Coral Reef Restoration - transplanting coral fragments onto degraded reef | VLOG

Here is the process of coating reef restoration structures; securing coral rubble areas; collecting coral fragments; and attaching transplanted coral to structures (Nusa Pendida, May 2024).

Giving 'coral of opportunity' a second life

Our local Indonesian team managing and implementing this project are Yudi and Chansa, an expert diver and marine biologist, who were concerned about the condition of coral reefs in Indonesia damaged by pollution, illegal fishing and climate change and felt compelled to act. With their passion and commitment, they lead our efforts in protecting and restoring the coral reef of Pura Mas and all its incredible biodiversity. 

Key to achieving this goal, we contract local divers, boat captains, and local community members to construct and deploy the restoration structures and have established the Pelestarian Laut Nusantara Foundation, a non-profit organisation registered by Mossy Earth in Indonesia, with the following in mind:

Maintaining the preservation of coral reefs and marine biodiversity through conservation & research, education and empowerment of local communities.

Carry out advocacy and education to the community, government and other stakeholders about the importance of coral reef conservation.

Conduct research and development of science and technology related to coral reefs and marine resources.

Carry out rehabilitation and restoration of coral reefs damaged by climate change, pollution and over-exploitation.

Encourage participation and empowerment of coastal communities in sustainable and ecosystem-based management of coral reefs.

Build a collaborative network with various parties who have the same vision and mission in the field of coral reef conservation.

Chansa Hilmira, Marine Biologist @ Mossy Earth

My passion for the ocean is the driving force behind my involvement in the coral restoration project. The ocean's vastness and mystery have always captivated me, and the opportunity to actively engage in its preservation is incredibly rewarding for myself. This project allows me to give back, to protect and nurture the marine life that fills me with wonder.

Coral appears like solid rock or bone but is, in actual fact, a living animal. Zoom in and you will see tiny anemone-like animals called polyps swaying like flowers in the water. These minute marine invertebrates have a soft, tubular body with a mouth surrounded by a ring of tentacles on top. Inside each polyp is a gut lining of tissue threads that help coral digest food. Tiny plant cells called Zooxanthellae live in the coral gut and provide them with their colourful compounds. Clustering together in colonies, coral share their food in a connected network. 

There are two main types of coral - stony/hard and soft corals. 

Hard corals include an impressive range of structural shapes from the spiral-like foliaceous, finger shaped digitate to the tabular and mushroom forms. Shallow water hard corals have a mutualistic association zooxanthellae. These single-celled organisms (coral can host a million cells in 1 cm2) harness the sun’s energy to photosynthesise and produce food. Zooxanthellae generously give around 90% of their own food to coral polyps, which are organic products of photosynthesis including glucose, glycerol and amino acids. In exchange, the algal cells receive nutrients and protection against herbivores and currents. 

These are known as hermatypic corals that also secrete a hard, calcium carbonate skeleton. The skeleton provides anchorage for the polyp, acts as a hideaway from danger, and is the substance that forms reefs. When billions of polyps fuse their calcium carbonate structures, coral reefs are born. Known as a 'foundation species', coral is the base that supports these bustling underwater metropolis.

The colourful underwater world of coral reefs lures marine species of all kinds. This is a small fraction of the species found in Nusa Penida's waters.

Can you cover the differences between growing coral fragments and spawning corals? Is the increased difficulty of spawning corals worth it?

Coral fragments are known as ‘corals of opportunity’ within the restoration world. This refers to the fact that they have already broken off their main structure (from disturbances such as storms or anchor damage) and will die unless they find a solid substrate to attach to.

Coral spawning (or larval-based coral propagation) involves inducing coral to spawn in an artificial environment or collecting spawn directly from the ocean (this is very challenging!) and rearing larvae in the lab. Once you have successfully reared the larvae, they can either be released to settle directly on the reef or encouraged to settle on an artificial substrate in the lab to be out-planted to the ocean at a later date.

In terms of genetic viability, coral spawn will be more genetically diverse than using clonal fragments. For our project, we aren’t actively propagating coral spawn to attach to the structures because the surrounding reef will do that for us (and will have much greater success!).

The adjacent healthy reef is already spawning into our rubble areas but the loose rubble is dislodging and burying the young spawn. By deploying restoration structures, we will hold down the rubble and allow these coral spawn to survive. We hope some of them will choose
to attach to our restoration structures themselves!

Are there alternatives to plastic cable ties for securing the coral fragments to the structures?

Based on the evidence found in current literature, cable ties provide the most secure attachment for transplanted coral fragments and therefore are the default attachment method for coral reef restoration. Cable ties are easy to use, form a secure attachment under water and won’t degrade before the coral has had time to form its own attachment to the substrate. In the process of coral attaching to the structures, a coralline algae would first cover the ties. The plastic surface would be covered in a few weeks, then the coral itself would layer over it. Based on some research, coralline algae contributes significantly to reef cementation, helping coral to encrust.

Alternatives like wire can be prone to rusting and snapping before the corals have formed their attachment while biodegradable alternatives to cable ties and natural ropes are difficult to form a tight attachment underwater and often biodegrade before the coral has attached to the substrate.

On the one hand, we always do our best to follow evidence-based best practice but on the other hand we just can’t shake the juxtaposition of adding plastic into our oceans while trying to restore them. Existing studies are interested in the universal applicability of these methods for widespread use. However, we would like to run our own version of these experiments to learn whether our experienced team of divers and marine biologists can overcome these usual pitfalls to plastic alternatives with a bit of extra patience and time. To find a plastic free alternative to cable ties that doesn’t compromise coral survival would be a game changer in facilitating plastic free coral reef restoration. 

To test this, we will be comparing the cable tie to 3 biodegradable alternatives. To assess the effectiveness of each attachment method, we will monitor each fragment every week for three months and assess coral self attachment (defined by the growth of new tissue across the substrate from more than two thirds of the coral fragment), coral detachment (where the coral fragment is lost from the structure) and mortality rates (where the fragment is still attached but is showing significant disease or stress induced bleaching).

Our Project Manager Yudi explains how this project evolved and breaks down the restoration process in-depth.

Building Resilient Coral Reefs - PROJECT DISCUSSION

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Pura Mas Gading Coral Restoration Management Plan.pdf

We aim to improve reef resilience and connectivity in Indonesia, working in close collaboration with local communities. This project begins by targeting 1 ha of rubble reef within the Nusa Penida Marine Protected Area.

Wilder Reefs

From Rubble to Reef:  Coral revival in Indonesia

Coral reefs are known as “the rainforests of the sea”. These vibrantly complex ecosystems harbour the highest biodiversity of any ecosystem globally. An estimated 25% of all marine species depend on reefs. They are also crucial for millions of people, providing food, livelihoods, resources and coastal protection.

Major threats, such as over-exploitation and climate change, are jeopardising the future of coral reefs. In the last few decades, sharp declines in reef cover have occurred worldwide. This is our first coral reef project to restore damaged reefs in the northern waters of Nusa Penida, Indonesia. 

Our long-term goal is to improve resilience by enhancing connectivity of fragmented reefs whilst protecting and preserving endangered coral species. Led by our local team of expert divers and marine biologists passionate about the preservation of this marine ecosystem, we work with local people to promote positive community involvement in coral reef restoration.

Why We Are Bringing Back the Lost Aspen Forests of Scotland

Beginning in Spring 2021, we are launching an ambitious project to plant and protect 10,000 aspen trees over the next 5 years. We are planting open areas with trees grown in nurseries and trialling different techniques to protect naturally regenerating aspen from deer browsing e.g. planting thorny shrubs. 

We will focus our efforts in riparian areas where aspen play an important role in stabilising the river bank, creating shade and providing nutrients in the form of leaf fall. In doing so, we will help sequester carbon, create important woodland habitat and improve the health of Scotland's rivers. 

A collection of photos from our Restoring Aspen project

Learn More About the Context Behind this Project

Aspen is considered to be a keystone species because of its ecological importance for other species. It provides vital habitat for a number of invertebrates, including aspen hoverfly (Hammerschmidtia ferruginea), an endangered species in the UK, as well as a diversity of lichen and bryophytes. Aspen is an important source of food for wildlife like, the Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), and provides important nesting sites for several species of hole nesting birds, including various species of woodpeckers. In Europe, aspen stands have been shown to be used by capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), another endangered species in Britain and of great conservation concern. 

Historical management of Scotland’s woodlands for timber meant that non-useful trees, like aspen, were removed. This, coupled with the fact that aspen is one of the most palatable trees to deer and other herbivores, has reduced aspen in Scotland to small isolated fragments.  High densities of deer are now limiting the regeneration and return of aspen to the Scottish landscape. Aspen also rarely produces seeds in Scotland, reproducing mainly by new shoots, called ramets or suckers, growing directly from the root systems of mature trees. As a result, once aspen is removed from a site, it is very slow to colonise. 

Learn more background to this project in the video below

Bringing Back the Lost Aspen Forests of Scotland

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We are restoring Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula) to the Scottish Highlands in partnership with Alladale Wilderness Reserve. Learn why aspen is important to protect.

Restoration of Eurasian aspen trees

Returning a Keystone Tree to the Scottish Highlands

Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula) is a keystone species that is largely missing from Scottish woodlands today. In Europe, its often found alongside birch, rowan, willow, and alder in the broadleaf component of northern coniferous forests. Together, they can occupy around 15-20% of the forest. In Scotland, aspen mostly exists as small, isolated fragments often consisting of single relict trees. To restore the natural diversity of the native pinewoods and return aspen to the landscape, we are embarking on a long-term project to plant and support the natural regeneration of aspen trees in Scotland.

How we are Reviving the Upper River Poudre Watershed | VLOG

The Cache la Poudre River, generally known as the “Poudre,” is part of the South Platte River basin. The Poudre spans approximately 140 miles and serves around 300,000 people in northern Colorado. The river originates in Rocky Mountain National Park and flows through the Roosevelt National Forest, eventually passing through Fort Collins and joining the South Platte River near Greeley.

The upper reaches of the Poudre are designated as “Wild & Scenic,” providing important recreational opportunities and supporting a range of wildlife.

The Poudre River and its tributaries are a network of waterways that provide habitat for fish, plants and insects that include grasses, rushes, and sedges as well as shrubs and trees that grow along its banks.

The rich riparian ecosystems along the Poudre River host a diverse array of biodiversity and support numerous natural processes and functions. This vibrant water course provides essential habitats for a variety of insects, amphibians, fish, and other species, including the threatened Preble’s Meadow Jumping Mouse, wood frogs, and potentially the Boreal Toad. The natural vegetation, including cottonwoods, aspens and native willows, are essential for providing food, shelter and breeding grounds for these species. 

Healthy riparian zones also play a crucial role in mitigating flooding, helping to maintain water quality and stabilising stream banks. In addition, trees and vegetation along the riverbanks create shade, which in turn helps control water temperatures, prevents erosion of their root systems and contributes to organic material that supports aquatic life. Maintaining an ideal balance of shade and sunlight is essential in sustaining healthy aquatic plant life and overall ecosystem health.

The Poudre River faces significant challenges due to physical alterations, pollution, and sedimentation from surrounding land use. Agricultural runoff, livestock access and historical land management practices have led to habitat degradation. Besides this, the widespread removal of beavers from many of these streams has led to a loss in their function to store sediment, reduce flood and fire risk, and support adequate wildlife.

Wildfires, such as the 2012 High Park and 2020 Cameron Peak fires, have further exacerbated these issues, causing erosion, debris flows and deteriorating water quality. These factors collectively threaten the overall resilience of the riparian ecosystems.

Removal of the Beaver, a Keystone Species

The beaver (Castor canadensis) is a keystone species that plays a vital role in maintaining the ecological health and biodiversity of the Poudre River. Through their dam-building activities, they create and enhance wetland habitats, which many other species rely on. Their presence transforms river and stream habitats into varied, rich environments that support numerous insects, amphibians, fish, and other wildlife. Additionally, beaver activity helps stabilise stream banks, reduce erosion, and improve water quality by trapping sediments and pollutants.

Furthermore, the wetlands created by beaver dams are significant in mitigating flooding by slowing down water flow and increasing groundwater recharge. By maintaining these dynamic habitats, beavers enhance the resilience of the Poudre River ecosystem to changes, such as the impacts of climate change.

The historical decline of beaver populations due to hunting and habitat destruction has led to profound ecological consequences. In North America, estimates say that beaver populations have declined by 80% to 98% since pre-European settlement, compounding issues such as increased erosion, degraded water quality and loss of habitat diversity.

Despite their ecological importance, Colorado state law allows for beavers to be hunted and killed if they damage property. This legal framework creates a conflict between human interests and ecological preservation, highlighting the need for policies that balance property protection with the conservation of essential species.

The primary objective of this project is to restore sections (both burnt and unburnt) of the Cache la Poudre River and its tributaries, such as Elkhorn Creek and South Lone Pine, to improve ecological health and habitat connectivity.

Installation of LTPBR structures: Use Low-Tech Process-Based Restoration (LTPBR) structures, such as post-assisted log structures and beaver dam analogues, to enhance water flow diversity, create new wetland areas and provide habitat complexity.

Livestock management: Implement livestock fencing (if needed) and create buffer strips to reduce encroachment along the tributaries.

Riparian tree management and planting: Planting native willow and cottonwood trees to regulate water temperatures and stabilise banks, to help restore the riparian habitat.

Enhanced habitat diversity and complexity 

Improved sediment storage potential as LTPBR structures capture sediment 

Improved water quality as riparian and wetland ecosystems help to filter pollutants and trap sediment

Increased resilience to severe wildfires and flooding 

A more engaged community that is aware of the benefits of this type of restoration and the conservation/enhancement of wetlands and riparian areas

Sustained health and resilience of riparian and wetland ecosystems which will contribute to the overall health of the watershed.  Beavers would come back into the system and build off the installed structures and maintaining the ecological integrity of the site(s)

This project aims to serve as a flagship restoration effort, inspiring public interest and contributing to the long-term health and resilience of the Cache la Poudre River and its watershed. By addressing critical threats and implementing targeted restoration efforts in partnership with the Coalition for the Poudre River Watershed (CPRW), we aim to create a healthier, more resilient Poudre River ecosystem that benefits both wildlife and the surrounding communities for generations to come.

The project kicked off with CPRW on the ground installing the first round of low tech processed based structures at the South Fork tributary of the Cache la Poudre River in fall 2024.

Community and key stakeholder involvement is an important component of this project, which will influence buy-in from land managers, private landowners and the local community. There are several priority areas located on private land and the concepts behind low-tech process-based restoration are still relatively new to some land managers and private landowners in the watershed, so the data and experience with completing these projects will need to be shared widely. 

Ways in which this project aims to create engagement, include:

Collaborating with CSU researchers and community scientists in data collection on water quality and pre and post project monitoring via photo points, cross sections and vegetation surveys. 

Organising regular meetings with private landowners and local community members to update on the project's progress. Additionally, CPRW will meet with local road association in the project area to share project plans and updates.

Running tours at similar projects completed in 2021-2023 to showcase examples of low-tech process-based restoration 1-2 years after construction.

Engaging with the local press from local news sources like the Fort Collins Coloradoan & North Forty News to CBS and/or 9News in Denver, Co.

The work of CPRW is under the guidance of the Upper Poudre Stakeholder Committee, which meets quarterly and includes representatives from the US Forest Service, Colorado State Forest Service, Colorado Parks and Wildlife, local municipalities, county government, researchers, landowners, and non-profit organisations.

Reviving the Upper River Poudre Watershed - PROJECT DISCUSSION

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We're partnering with the CPRW to restore riverine and wetland functions in priority areas of the Upper River Poudre Watershed in Colorado.

Reviving a watershed

Protecting water quality, restoring beaver habitat and building resilience to wildfires and floods on the Upper River Poudre Watershed

Our Projects

Reforestation

Rewilding

Ocelot Reintroductions in Iberá

Restoring Ancient Wetlands

Wilder Reefs

Restoring Aspen

Reviving a Watershed

Restoring Forest Fungi