We have a range of reforestation projects that include the restoration of illegal clear cuts, areas destroyed by wildfires & former agriculture lands devoid of biodiversity.

Reforestation Projects

All of our rewilding projects have as their main aim to maximise the restoration of wilderness and the promotion of biodiversity.

Rewilding Projects

Restore wildlife habitats and support biodiversity.

How we are reviving an Ancient Icelandic Wetland

A vital breeding ground for international waders

Iceland is a crucial hub for migratory birds, hosting the breeding population of 52% of the world’s Eurasian Golden Plovers, 27% of Eurasian Whimbrels, and 12% of all Common Redshanks. After breeding, these birds migrate south, linking Iceland to ecosystems across Europe and Africa. The Mýrar-Löngufjörur area is one of the country’s protected natural areas, where these birds of international importance come every year to nest alongside others, like waterfowl species. Its low-lying aquatic vegetation provides perfect shelter, with rich food sources available from plant material, invertebrates and other species.

In our project areas in the Kálfalækur and Blöndulækur watersheds, a combination of peatlands, shallow lakes and small wetland streams are home to a diversity of flora and fauna. Some of the species in the area include: Brown Trout (Salmo trutta), Dunlin (Calidris alpina), Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa), Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago), Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), Spiny quillwort (Isoetes echinospora), Lake quillwort (Isoetes lacustris), Rusty Hook-moss (corpidium revolvens), Lustrous Bog-moss (Sphagnum subnitens subsp. Subnitens), and the critically endangered European eel Eel (Anguilla anguilla).

One of the most remarkable lifecycles supported by Mýrar’s wetland ecosystems is that of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla). Traversing thousands of kilometres and transforming dramatically at different life stages, it's a story of endurance, metamorphosis, and survival.

Beginning life in its sole spawning grounds in the Sargasso Sea, eel larvae are carried up to 6,000 km via ocean currents to the coasts of Europe, where they metamorphose into glass eels. Icelandic wetlands become their home during a crucial growth phase that can last up to 20 years. Here, eels play important ecological roles as both predator and prey, before beginning their migration (without feeding!) back to the Sargasso Sea, where they spawn and die.

Peatlands are unique wetlands where waterlogged soils preserve partially decayed plant matter over thousands of years. The low oxygen levels slow decomposition, creating rich, carbon-storing soils in conditions that support specially adapted plants like mosses, sedges and grasses. Many of Iceland’s wetlands are special in that they contain soil properties, such Andosol and Histosol, not commonly found elsewhere in the world. Their fertile grounds often consist of deep intact layers of peat with high organic content. Soils can extend 1-3 metres in thickness that can store 33 to >100 kg C m−2, which exceeds global averages of carbon storage.

The peatland vegetation in our project area is mainly characterised by Common cotton-grass, which provides food and habitat suited to numerous species, particularly wading birds. While this vegetation still shows signs of its original wetland character, historic land use has altered water flow and plant communities significantly. 

A landscape impacted by drainage and channels

Last century, widespread drainage and channelisation reshaped Iceland’s wetlands. Between 1960s and 1990s, in attempts to improve food security and rural livelihoods, the government subsidised access to large excavators, which farmers in Mýrar used to drain peatlands, lakes and straighten natural stream channels to expand agricultural land. While areas of land were converted, not all attempts were successful in improving conditions for farming. Today, only small areas of land are kept for horses and sheep grazing. 

In the Kálfalækur and Blöndulækur watersheds, the channelised streams have led to the formation of barriers that disconnect freshwater habitats. They cut off vital spawning grounds for trout and blocked eels' migratory paths through the system. Habitats for other aquatic life have also been destroyed with reduced water affecting the integrity of the peatlands. Not only has this altered general ecosystem health, but it has increased carbon emissions as peatland conditions deteriorate and their carbon-storing powers diminish.

This project is an exciting opportunity to reverse some of the ecological damage in Mýrar by reconnecting freshwater habitats and reviving peatlands. Restoring these ancient wetlands not only supports local wildlife, it also provides crucial breeding and resting grounds for great migratory species, extending the impact far beyond Iceland.

In partnership with the Land and Forest Iceland, Fuglavernd/ BirdLife Iceland, the Marine and Freshwater Research Institute and the RSPB - Flyways Programme, we've identified these opportunities to improve the landscape. 

This project is the first phase of re-opening connectivity and restoring channels, lakes and peatlands in the wetland system. Our focus is on restoring two vital watersheds in the Mýrar region: Kálfalækur and Blöndulækur. Both areas have been heavily impacted by past land use, where peatlands were drained, streams were straightened, and fish migration routes were blocked.

Restore natural hydrological processes and flows to reconnect habitat for migratory freshwater species

Create and restore peatland habitat for more biodiversity, with a particular focus on breeding wader populations as an indicator of habitat function

If you want to see a lay of the land before reading our plans, view this 360° drone image.

In both watersheds, we’re restoring natural stream channels and removing barriers that prevent migratory freshwater fish from reaching spawning and feeding grounds. This will be done by removing four man-made barriers and regrading the watercourses. 

Beginning with Stream Bretalækur in the Kálfalækur watershed, two barriers are being removed and redesigned using a natural step-pool approach. This involves closing drainage ditches that were cut into natural streams, diverting flows and causing the build up of barriers in the streams. By closing these ditches and re-profiling the area into step-pools, we will allow the flow to reach Lake Bretavatn. In doing so, this opens up 30.6 ha of feeding grounds for trout, connecting them from spawning grounds in the stream. Other species, including birds, will also benefit from the restored habitat, with islets in the lakes also providing breeding areas. This phase will improve the freshwater connectivity of the system by another 4 km.

In the Blöndulækur watershed, we’re removing another two barriers to open access to two small restored lakes, which in turn will connect three lakes across the watershed. To do this, full channel realignments will replace artificial drainage ditches. For both barriers, we will close the channel and build more natural connections by redesigning the flow between lakes. Creating longer, more natural bends provides more habitat for aquatic organisms as well as helps prevent erosion, which could dramatically lead to the lakes draining again. By replicating natural and physical processes as much as possible, we are trying to ensure the re-opened watercourse is physically stable for the long-term.  

The restoration work in Blöndulækur will result in critically endangered eel gaining access to two more lakes, which is 21.6 ha of new habitat. With the lakes reconnecting to 6.3 km stream habitat, this benefits both resident and anadromous trout who also access more vital habitat. Once the final obstacle is removed, there will be an uninterrupted flow that extends 16 km from the headwaters out to sea.

As part of the restoration, any fish present will be carefully rescued using electrofishing to safely move trout and endangered eels upstream before barriers are removed. In parallel, we're studying fish populations in affected lakes by trapping, measuring, and tagging eel and trout. The data will help us estimate population sizes, track their movement between lakes and understand their age and growth through scale analysis.

In total, 3,362 meters of surrounding drainage ditches will be closed, allowing the peatlands to re-wet and the water table to rise. As natural flows are restored, the decomposition of organic matter will slow and reduce GHG emissions, and conditions for peatland vegetation will improve. Overall, these changes will boost ecosystem health, benefiting many species but especially vital for wading birds and waterfowls, which rely on these wetlands being intact and healthy habitats to breed.

This project also seeks to engage stakeholders like landowners in the process of restoring their lands. They will be supported and guided on how to track changes to the wetlands by being fully involved in the monitoring. Through active participation, our ambition is to demonstrate a new, more holistic model of wetland restoration— one which both biodiversity and people benefit.

Different angles of Mýrar's inland wetland ecosystem, including its inhabitants and species, the migration barriers and spectacular Icelandic scenery. 

To measure the impact of our actions, the project team monitors key indicators and compares outcomes to the baseline scenario. Some of the areas we’ll be looking to assess include changes in watercourse topology, peatland water table levels, wader populations, and where possible breeding densities recorded. Any relevant results that are gathered will be shared more widely through the RSPB Flyways Programme— a network of conservation sites aimed at protecting vital habitats for migratory birds along the East Atlantic Flyway.

Mossy Earth is providing €135,364 of the total budget of €157,483 to cover staffing, engineer contractors, equipment, travel and monitoring costs.

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Restoration of wetlands in Mýrar Management Plan.docx.pdf

Closing ditches and removing barriers to rewet peatland and reconnect crucial freshwater habitat in the inland wetlands of Mýrar, West Iceland.

Restoring Ancient Wetlands

Closing ditches and removing barriers to rewet peatland and reconnect crucial freshwater habitat

The inland wetland of Mýrar in West Iceland is an ancient freshwater ecosystem of international importance. Its expansive freshwater habitats are resting places for migratory birds, some of whose global populations rely on them as breeding grounds. Within its many lakes and streams, species like the critically endangered eel feed and grow during epic migrations. In two key catchments of the Mýrar wetlands, we’re supporting the first wetland restoration project of its kind in Iceland for freshwater species. The goals? To unblock migratory paths, rewet drained peatlands and restore flows that connect all the way out to sea.

The white-clawed crayfish stands out as freshwater species for its impressive mix of ancient lineage and ecological impact. It is a living relic with a lineage going back 250 million years, preceding the Triassic period. Its role in the ecosystem is also extraordinary. 

Known to cover a wide spectrum of ecological functions, they are considered a keystone species, ecosystem engineers, flagship species and bioindicators of habitat quality. This aquatic creature clearly has a disproportionate impact on its habitats. 

Read on to learn how its presence helps bring ecological balance in the rivers and streams they inhibit. 

Header photo & below: Bruno_D'Amicis & Carlos Samuel Garcia Bas

River restoration in the Central Apennines

This project fits into the wider efforts to strengthen white-clawed crayfish populations across key catchment areas of the Central Apennines. Specifically, the restoration work done by Rewilding Apennines on the Liri and Verde Rivers. The broader strategy for the region, designed by Rewilding Europe and Rewilding Apennines, is to restore its rivers by returning keystone species and removing dams.

To scale the work already underway in the Liri and Verde Rivers, we are supporting Rewilding Apennines to achieve the following:

Support the crayfish comeback through the establishment of a white-clawed crayfish breeding centre at Pettorano sul Gizio. This is one of three breeding centres set up to restock the Central Apennines watercourses. Our support is covering the setup of the centre’s operations and staffing, monitoring of the animals in the wild and other fieldwork. 

Restore the natural river dynamics through land acquisition. In the area adjacent to the breeding centre, the Giozio river creates a natural meander during times of high water. By slowing water flow and exposing the river bank, the meander creates the perfect conditions for crayfish and hence, would help newly released crayfish to settle. The current landowner, however, intends to reinforce the embankment to stop the river from cutting into his land. The embankment would essentially destroy the suitable crayfish habitat. By purchasing this section of riverfront, we aim to secure this critical crayfish habitat in the long-term.

Promote the crayfish comeback through two community-based initiatives on the theme of ‘Rivers’. The goal is to engage and foster pride in local communities by demonstrating the importance of rivers as strong elements of ecological and cultural heritage. Also, by showcasing the role of crayfish in maintaining healthy rivers and raising awareness of the issues, the events aim to engage the community in the long-term vision of river restoration for the region. They will also provide an opportunity to celebrate the progress made in crayfish comebacks so far. The two events will involve:
- Connecting to local entrepreneurs
- Collecting old stories and recipes linked to rivers from local people
- Co-organising two community-led events

A feasibility study for the release of crayfish in the Central Apennines was carried out by Rewilding Apennines in 2020, which identified streams, including the Gizio River, as having some of the best available habitat for the species with a lower risk of threats than elsewhere. These streams will be used as sites for the young white-clawed crayfish to be reintroduced.

We would like to thank our members for their support in funding this project’s budget of €23,500. The funders for the existing wider project of rewilding rivers in the Central Apennines are Rewilding Europe and Fondation Ensemble.

Poaching and the crayfish plague (Aphanomyces astaci) are the two main threats, which will be addressed in the following ways.

The anti-poaching service, ArciPesca FISA, will oversee monitoring of the areas where juvenile crayfish will be reintroduced. Controls over the areas will be conducted on a weekly basis to ensure poaching is prevented. This measure will be implemented in conjunction with an awareness raising campaign aimed at influencing behavioural change in the long-term. 

To tackle the threat of crayfish plague affecting newly reintroduced crayfish, three separate measures are implemented and will be developed over time.

Communication to the local population: to educate the public on best practices to adopt and prevent the spread of the plague, namely disinfecting materials used when entering rivers. Rewilding Apennines has already produced some specific material for this purpose as part of the EU project LIFE Claw.

The anti-poaching unit operations: which aim to prevent the plague spreading as poachers are known to go between streams.

Trout release monitoring: involving the monitoring of released trout to ensure they have not been contaminated with the crayfish plague. A target communication plan is required to develop this measure.

Mating behaviour was observed at the Pettorano sul Gizio breeding centre. In the months that followed, eggs were detected in the abdomens of half of the female crayfish examined, confirming that reproduction was successful.

The first group of 500 juveniles white-clawed crayfish have been released into the Gizio river. Using an old mill in Pettorano sul Gizio as a hatchery site for female crayfish, allowed for their hatchlings to move independently into the river.

Update October 2025: Releasing crayfish into the Gizio river!

Built with a mechanical yet agile exoskeleton, the white-clawed crayfish is well equipped to traverse fast-flowing streams and navigate rocky waters. As it burrows in search of food and buries to hide away from predators, the crayfish affects sediment buildup on stream and river beds. As such, their movement and feeding behaviour positively influences nutrient cycling and the quality of the habitat, benefiting other aquatic species.

The crayfish is also an important link in the web of interactions as both a predator and prey species. Armed with large imposing white claws, crayfish are omnivores that devour a wide variety of other species and matter. This easy-to-please eater has a diet consisting of macro-invertebrates, small vertebrates and aquatic plants. Feeding on both living and decaying plants and animals, the crayfish is one of nature’s cleaners. Studies show this opportunistic feeder affects the composition of species in the community. For example, by cropping stands of aquatic vegetation with its claws, crayfish control the amounts of plant-living invertebrates. Also, by shredding leaf litter, it supports collector species who mop up the remains of particulate matter.

An abundance of white-clawed crayfish is also vital for predating species. Many different mammals, fish and birds feed on them. Otters, eels and herons are a few examples of animals who predate on crayfish.

Bioindicators or surrogates for water quality 

White-clawed crayfish settle in streams, rivers and ditches by silt and stone beds with clear, well-oxygenated water and free of pollutants. Their preference for more pristine aquatic conditions means they act as a biological indicator of environmental integrity in regions like the Apennines. 

Flagship species are those who hold an appeal to the public for being charismatic and ecologically significant. These roles are usually reserved for attractive mammal species, such as the panda, with invertebrates receiving far less popularity. The crayfish, however, challenges this trend and is considered a flagship species because of its outstanding ecological impact, longevity and cultural importance.

Despite surviving for millions of years, the crayfish is now precariously clinging onto existence in many regions. Between 1999-2009 in Italy, native crayfish populations declined 74%. More recent local surveys in the Abruzzo Region show similar worrying trends. Populations have vanished from the Gizio River and massively decreased in the Verde and Romito Rivers. The 2010 IUCN assessment places the white-clawed crayfish on the Red List of Threatened  Species as Endangered. 

Several serious threats are facing the species, including:

Human Impact: Alterations to catchment areas, canal construction, dams, and water withdrawals negatively impact crayfish habitats.

Climate Change: Aquatic environments are being disrupted by rising temperatures, reduced precipitation, and water acidity.

Poaching: Illegal crayfish capture has increased, particularly across open European borders. 

Invasive Species: Non-native crayfish and fish species introduce diseases and compete with native crayfish. 

In the mid-nineteenth century in Italy, non-native species of crayfish were introduced to watercourses with the intention of restocking local populations. Unbeknown at the time, the non-native species were vectors of what’s known as the ‘crayfish plague’ caused by a fungus called Aphanomyces astaci. Invasive non-native species like the signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus), although immune to the disease themselves, are hosts for the pathogen. In 1859, the first occurrence of crayfish plague was recorded, wiping out populations of native species, who have no natural resistance. Still today, the disease has a devastating effect on white-clawed crayfish in many regions. With a high mortality rate, often 100%, whole populations are decimated only weeks after the disease enters a waterway.

Targeted reintroductions: Avoiding the plague

In spite of the threats, there have been positive results from conservation initiatives in the UK, France and Italy to restore native populations. As the crayfish plague requires a host, without it the fungus can only survive for a limited period (a few hours to several weeks). If efforts to reinforce populations after an outbreak are targeted at waterways where no alien crayfish exist, the risk of infection is greatly reduced.

Reintroductions should be complemented by measures that address the spread of disease in other ways. As the crayfish plague can be carried via contaminated equipment such as fishing gear, there is a need to raise awareness among local river users of the issue and inform them of best practices, such as disinfecting equipment.

On September 21st 2024, Rewilding Apennines hosted a community gathering to mark the return of the white-clawed crayfish. The open day brought together local entrepreneurs, residents, and nature lovers to share old river stories and celebrate the region’s natural heritage.

It was a truly interdisciplinary experience, blending science, art, music, storytelling, games, and nature walks. The day fostered a deeper connection not only to nature but also among the people themselves - encapsulating the heart of rewilding!

This day was a vibrant celebration of the synergy between nature, culture, and community.

Celebrating the Return of the White-Clawed Crayfish

Adriana Brossmannova, Project Manager @ Mossy Earth

Many people across Europe still remember when the brooks and streams were full of crayfish that have been used as a source of nutrients for people for millennia and therefore this species could act as an ambassador for wider riverine protection efforts.

Hear more background to this intervention with project manager Adriana.

Reintroducing the endangered white-clawed crayfish - PROJECT PODCAST

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Rewilding management plan crayfish comeback.pdf

Supporting the comeback of a freshwater superstar species in the Central Apennines with Rewilding Apennines.

Reintroducing the Endangered White-Clawed Crayfish

Bringing back a piece of the river ecology puzzle in the Central Apennines

The white-clawed crayfish (Austropotamobius pallipes) is somewhat of a superstar of freshwater streams. It claims an impressive collection of ecological accolades as a keystone species, ecosystem engineer, flagship species and bioindicator of habitat quality. This incredibly resilient crustacean has a lineage dating back 250 millions years!

Today, however, white-clawed crayfish are in hot water in the streams of Italy’s Central Apennines and are now an endangered species. This project is designed to bolster populations of white-clawed crayfish across key catchments of the Central Apennines. We are supporting Rewilding Apennines to protect critical riverfront habitat on the Gizio river and to establish a new crayfish breeding centre.

We’re reclaiming Iceland's Deserts - here’s how

We're reclaiming Iceland's Deserts - here's how

We plant downy birch (Betula pubescens) as the dominant species because it is an excellent pioneer, which will make the conditions more favourable for other native tree species to thrive. Tea leaved willow (Salix phylicifolia) is incredibly efficient at natural dispersal so it is only a small proportion of our planting to create seed islands where willow is absent from the landscape. Aspen (Populus tremula) is similarly efficient at self propagation. The final native species found in these birch woodlands is rowan but this will survive much better if planted a few years after the other species once conditions are more favourable.

Redpoll (Acanthis flammea), redwing (Turdus iliacus), snipe (Gallinago gallinago) and ptarmigan (Lagopus muta).

Learn More About the Context Behind this Project

At the time of human settlement almost 1,150 years ago, Iceland had a forest cover of between 25% to 40%. By the mid 20th century, it is thought to have been reduced to less than 1% of the total land area, perhaps even less than 0.5%. 

Huge swathes of forest were cleared by the first settlers of the island, who used the wood for fuel, ships and houses, and then also cleared forest to make room for sheep grazing. 

For the last few decades, tree planting projects and afforestation grants have got underway, and today, native woodland cover stands at around 1%. The Iceland government aims to increase that number to 5% in the next 50 years. 

Iceland birchwoods are unusual in that they are the only type of native woodland to form in Iceland. All other woodland types are comprised of non-native species, such as spruce and larch. Birchwoods are comprised predominantly of a single species - downy birch. Rowan and tea-leaved willow add some diversity to the woodland, as well as aspen, an extremely rare tree in Iceland that exists in only 6 wild locations. Birchwoods are also not particularly tall, with trees reaching roughly 15m in height in sheltered valleys. Towards the coast and on exposed sites, birchwoods transition to birch and willow scrub, and at high elevations to willow tundra. 

Birchwoods provide important habitat for wildlife, particularly birdlife, such as wrens, redwings, and redpolls. They are also important for capturing carbon and as a windbreak. Iceland is well known for its wind, which, combined with its volcanic activity, is a recipe for disastrous sand and ash storms that blow unimpeded across much of the landscape. Birchwoods can help stabilise soils and act as a much-needed barrier against the storms. 

When settlers arrived in Iceland, they began harvesting birchwoods for fuel, building material and livestock fodder. The most important forest produce at the time was charcoal, needed to smelt iron and make iron tools. Birchwoods were also cut down to create fields and grazing land for sheep, which were farmed for wool and later for food.  

Once the trees were cut down, woodland cover continued to decline due to overgrazing by sheep. Sheep roam freely across the landscape and can browse naturally generating birch trees. If you want to keep sheep off your land in Iceland, it is your responsibility to keep them out by building a fence. Today, natural regeneration failure due to livestock grazing is the principle cause of deforestation. 

Iceland has been described as the most eroded land in Europe, possibly the world. As the woodlands and vegetation disappeared, soil was left exposed to the hash Icelandic climate. Over time, this has left poor quality substrate and little in the way of nutrients for trees to grow across many areas in Iceland. Considerable efforts have been put into halting and reversing this trend in the last century, led by the Soil Conservation Service of Iceland.

A cooling climate, volcanic eruptions and other types of disturbance are sometimes cited as causes for the decline in woodland in Iceland, but do not explain the entire picture. Cooling temperatures might have lowered the tree line, as the higher altitude areas became more inhospitable to trees, but do not explain the disappearance of birchwoods in the lowlands. Natural disturbances, such as volcanic eruptions, are sporadic and restricted to particular sites, so not do explain the widespread deforestation across the country.

The initial planting site allocated for this project was in the west of the country in an area called Bakkakotsháls, translated to Bankcroft Hill. However, planting at this location was suspended due to a complaint received about an access road to the site being repaired. 

The Icelandic Forestry Service has reassigned this project to an area located in Skeiða- og Gnúpverjahreppur in the south of Iceland. The planting area is situated just south of Selklettar mountain besides a hill of 240m in elevation named Skridhufell. In 2023, we also planted on the opposite side of the valley. The area is picturesque with a winding river running through it and a waterfall close by. Wildlife that inhibits the area include the native arctic fox and a variety of birdlife. The area also contains patches of eroded soil and lupin - a rapid spreading invasive plant. As this plant has soil improving qualities and is the topic of debate around Iceland, we've made a special video on this divisive issue (see below).

If you'd like dig deeper into this component of the project, see our management plan.

Private landowners, Kári and Ragnheiður, are overseeing our tree planting on their 100 ha property between 2024-2027. The land was once covered in vast forests containing rich soil, but has suffered degradation due to erosion and land use. The initial degradation of the land happened after a huge sandstorm swept through the area in 1882. Since then, despite the area being fenced off to browsing pressure from sheep, not much else has been done except for lupine seeding and small batches of birch planting to restore the forests to their former glory. 

In preparation for each planting season, the soil will be prepared for planting by using organic fertilisers and seeds, in collaboration with the Soil Conservation Agency (Landgræðslan) in Gunnarsholt. A especially prepared seed mixture for landowners with barren lands will help reduce erosion rates and improve conditions for local plants.

In addition to planting birch, we will plant aspen, alder, black cottonwood and willow to avoid uniformity and increase the likelihood of success.

For further information, see this Management Plan.

Our long-term plans are to work towards wider restoration objectives in Iceland. The next step we've taken is to set up a wetland restoration project in the vast freshwater ecosystems of Mýrar, West Iceland.

Here is a take on the divisive invasive plant in Iceland. Check it out and let us know your opinion! 

Iceland's Deserts Are Turning Purple - here's why

Check out this playlist to follow this project's story on YouTube.

Galtalækur Landskógar management plan.pdf

Icelandic forest cover currently stands at 1.5% from previous levels of 25-40%. Learn how this reforestation project aims to return native forests to Iceland once more.

Reforesting Iceland

Bringing Icelandic birchwoods back to the land of fire and ice

Iceland is known for its vast open landscapes shaped by massive volcanos and expansive glaciers. Native birchwoods, the only woodland type to form in Iceland, are also an important part of the landscape. They offer food and shelter for biodiversity, help stabilise soil, provide wind breaks, and sequester carbon. At one point, it is thought that 25-40% of Iceland was covered in birchwoods. Now, it's just 1%. This project, in partnership with the Iceland Forest Service and private landowners Kári and Ragnheiður, aims to restore birchwoods to an area about 120km east of Reykjavik in the southern uplands of Iceland, where natural succession could take centuries or even millennia.

Our Bizarre Approach to Rewilding Sea-Cliffs

Invasive plant removal and community engagement

We are organizing events with local volunteers to help remove the invasive ice plant from the area where it is competing with the rare cliff plants. This is done by manually pulling the plants and removing them from the area. With these events we are aiming to:

stop the invasion before it spreads further and control efforts become unfeasible;

take direct action to restore diverse cliff plant communities (similar efforts have been successful elsewhere);

spread awareness about these species to prevent any damage by park visitors;

encourage dialogue between all the groups involved in protecting, studying and enjoying the area.

Monitoring with a drone and photogrammetry

We will be capturing drone images to survey inaccessible cliffs and ensure we have the evidence needed to guide our conservation actions. We expect the technology will have multiple uses: 

detecting the presence of rare plant species in hard to access locations;

monitoring the distribution of the invasive ice plant and use this data to coordinate removal events; 

monitor the vegetation before and after ice plant removal to check if the vegetation is recovering as expected or if further intervention is needed.

November 2023: Using rope access to remove invasive plants from cliff ecosystems | VLOG

December 2023: Using a high tech drone to map our cliff project for invasive plants | VLOG

Using rope access to remove invasive plants from cliff ecosystems | VLOG

Using a high tech drone to map our cliff project for invasive plants | VLOG

We've described the project itself above, but read on to see why this is so important.

Learn more about how and why we want to protect these plants

For some plants, the cliffs of Cabo Espichel are the ideal refuge from human disturbance and from other species that would outcompete them elsewhere. Two of these plant species have their entire global distribution restricted to this 15 km stretch of coastline and have been listed as endangered in the recently published Red List of Vascular Plants of continental Portugal. 

Convolvulus fernandesii is a species of vine that grows on the cliff faces and at their base, sometimes climbing over other plants and shrubs. It puts out beautiful white flowers in the spring and in the summer its bright green leaves turn yellow. It is extremely rare with the latest estimate putting the total number of mature individuals at 500. 

Euphorbia pedroi is a sub-succulent plant that is adapted to dry conditions which can attain up to 2m in height and more than 2m in width. Its leaves have a very distinct tone of green before they are shed every year during the heat of summer. Although it appears to be more numerous than C. fernandesii, there are only three known subpopulations in the area and it is unclear to what extent these are connected. 

The extreme scarcity of each of these plants makes this a worthwhile mission to ensure their uniqueness remains instead of losing them forever.

Threats that are thought to be affecting both species include:

increases in the frequency and intensity of droughts; 

the spread of the invasive ice plant (Carporboruts edulis).

Take a look at this special vegetation that can only be seen here. The final image shows the spread of the invasive 'ice plant'.

Other than the two narrow endemics, this part of the coast is very rich in plant diversity with about 1400 plant species recorded. Some of these are rare in Portugal and have been identified as a conservation priority by the Portuguese Botanical Society including:         

One serious threat for these rare species is the spread of ice plant (Carpobrous edulis) in the area. This is an invasive succulent plant that forms dense mats which change the soil composition and displace native species that have been evolving together for millennia. It can spread rapidly on dunes and coastal cliffs wiping out entire plant communities. As in other European countries, the species was introduced in Portugal during the 1900s because it was thought to help prevent coastal erosion. It is currently widespread along the Portuguese coast. 

Rock climbers are among the people that spend the most time exploring these cliffs and so are more likely to encounter these rare species. By spreading awareness among the climbing community we want to help reduce the chances that someone will damage these plants due to a lack of knowledge. What’s more, rock climbers are comfortable navigating these hard to access locations so they make ideal volunteers to help us plan and carry out interventions in the area. Having said this, everyone is welcome to join and we hope to get a wide range of people excited about plants and other cliff-dwelling biodiversity!

Using a drone for cliff plant monitoring 

Current methods for monitoring these rare endemic species are very time consuming making it impractical to carry out population surveys with the accuracy and frequency needed to detect population trends and threats. Both species have a very narrow range but their habitat is very hard to access. 

If no other monitoring approach is used, we would have to invest substantial time in continuously monitoring these populations. Accurate population size estimates would require very thorough sampling using abseiling and rock climbing techniques. Other than being logistically complex, this type of survey would be intrusive and could inadvertently disturb the cliff ecosystem. 

To address this, we are using a drone to capture high resolution images which can later be processed to detect where the individuals of each species are present. After being validated and refined, we hope this approach will provide a reproducible and cost effective way to monitor the abundance and distribution of these rare species. 

We also aim to use the drone and photogrammetry software to create orthophotomaps of the areas where C. edulis is to be removed. The resulting maps will help to plan the removal events but, more importantly, they provide a baseline scenario for monitoring the impact of this intervention on native vegetation. By creating the same maps every year, we hope to capture the process of recolonization by native vegetation. These surveys may demonstrate the success of the intervention or a failure of native plants to recolonize the area which would suggest that assisted revegetation may be appropriate. Finally, we expect the maps will prove useful as a way of identifying C. edulis resprouts that could be missed otherwise.

The partnerships making this project possible

We are getting all kinds of partners together for this project. The local rock climbing community and the cavers from NECA (@neca.espeleologia.arrabida on Instagram) are contributing as volunteers with their local knowledge, sweat and hard work in our invasive plant removal events. 

Pix4D, a drone mapping software company, has kindly offered to sponsor our use of their software for this and other Mossy Earth projects. This is part of their ambition of using their technology to support nature conservation and restoration projects. 

The Portuguese Botanical Society is contributing with crucial plant science expertise and the local park authorities (ICNF) are helping ensure our efforts fit into the broader conservation strategy for this protected area. Finally, we have the support of the local municipality (Camara Municipal de Sesimbra) for logistical issues and to coordinate with their ongoing efforts to conserve the area's unique biodiversity. 

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Management_plan_cliff_plants.pdf

To help save plant species that exist nowhere else on earth, we are working with volunteers from the rock climbing community to remove an invasive plant from sea cliffs in Portugal.

Saving Rare Sea Cliff Plants

On a stunning 15 km stretch of Portuguese coast two special cliff plants found nowhere else on earth are facing extinction. The main threat comes from a dominating invasive species carpeting the cliff called the ‘ice plant’. Access to the sheer cliff faces poses a challenge for their conservation. This is why we’ve gathered local rock climbers and cavers, passionate about local biodiversity, to remove the invasive ice plant. We’re also using drone technology to document changes to the vegetation. Protecting these precious plants not only reduces biodiversity loss but treasures nature in all its glorious forms.

We’re chainsawing healthy trees into rivers - here's why

Riparian Ecosystems - supporting an array of aquatic life

Rich riparian ecosystems host a complexity of biodiversity and support many natural processes and functions. In addition to providing habitats for insects, fish and other species drawn to these vibrant water sources, they play a role in mitigating flooding and pollution. Natural riverside ‘buffer’ zones, where areas like swales and small wetlands form, can reduce peak flows, capture pollutants from agricultural runoff and promote natural processing of nutrients. 

Another vital component of healthy, dynamic riverine ecosystems is tree cover. By providing shade, trees help control rising water temperatures, hence minimising the thermal stress on aquatic life which can be fatal for fish species like the Atlantic salmon. Tree root systems also prevent riverbank erosion and are used by fish to shelter from predators. Further to this, riparian trees help reduce airborne spray drift of agrochemicals and add woody debris and leaf litter into the system that creates habitats, more dynamic water flow and aids pollutant removal. That being said, too much tree cover blocks the light needed for photosynthesis for other important aquatic plants. This can adversely affect species reliant on a diversity of vegetation. The ideal balance between shade and open areas is generally agreed at 60% shading of the channel with 40% receiving dappled sunlight.

Situated within the Bristol Avon catchment, the River Chew has fragments of lush wetlands and ancient woodlands that provide vital wildlife corridors for insects, birds, bats and mammals. The river also supports migratory fish after their arduous migrations out to sea when they return to spawn in freshwater habitat. Among the species found to be using the tributaries through eDNA testing is the European eel, sea trout, brook lamprey and the iconic Atlantic salmon, all of which appear on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species. 

Maintaining healthy populations of these species has a positive cascading effect across freshwater and marine ecosystems. Take the Atlantic salmon for example, it’s a prey species to many animals along its migration and brings nutrients from the ocean upstream to freshwater environments through excretion, spawning and decay. Current challenges of habitat degradation and obstruction in the Chew catchment are jeopardising these species’ life cycles, risking the balance of interactions that would result from population declines.

Within the Bristol Avon catchment only 12% of water bodies have been classified as having good ecological status. Reasons attributed to the poor conditions include physical alterations to watercourses and elevated levels of phosphate and nitrate. There are other factors considered to also affect this, such as fine sediment loads from land use, pesticides, pharmaceutical chemicals and contaminated road runoff. Subsequently, fish populations are threatened by the pressures created by poor water quality and pollution as well as physical barriers like weirs that prevent them reaching spawning sites.

One of the main drivers of degradation to these precious riparian ecosystems, and in particular for the River Chew catchment, comes from adjacent land use. Alongside many areas of the stream, surrounding land is used for pasture and crop production. In some areas, there are no boundaries as the agricultural land squeezes up close to the water’s edge. This leads to agricultural runoff and silting which smothers the gravels that fish use for spawning and can impact other aquatic life within the freshwater. As access for livestock is unrestricted along some of the riparian zones, vegetation and banks have been disrupted by trampling and excretion. Furthermore, there are areas of overgrown vegetation which prevent macrophytes (aquatic weeds that help the oxidation of water) from colonising. 

The current state of the riparian habitat leaves great potential to restore and connect areas that will not only help struggling species populations but also enhance the ecosystem’s overall resilience. 

The overall objective of this project is to restore sections of the Candlestick Brook and Bathford Brook to improve the ecological health and riparian habitat connectivity of these two key fish spawning sites. Both brooks flow into the River Chew in the Bristol Avon catchment.

The first stage of the project involves conducting habitat and fish spawning surveys and developing landowner engagement. These actions intend to inform the required restoration works and reduce landowners’ impact on the riparian areas. The outcomes of this stage could lead to a combination of the following interventions being implemented by BART, working in partnership with relevant landowners.

Livestock management: such as livestock fencing and creating buffer strips to reduce encroachment along the brooks.

Installation of woody debris into the watercourse: to improve the diversity of waterflow, with the potential to create new wetland areas, in addition to providing habitats and spawning sites for wild migratory fish.

Riparian tree management: designed to achieve more optimal light conditions (targeting a 60:40 ratio) by thinning wooded canopy. A reduction in shading can facilitate macrophyte growth and help create clean riverbed gravels ideal for fish spawning.

Riparian tree planting: to increase shade where the brooks are overexposed to natural light, helping to regulate water temperatures. Additionally, tree planting can eventually help stabilise banks and input woody materials into the watercourse, needed for the development of invertebrate populations.

The main desired outcomes these interventions hope to achieve are:

Improved habitat for migratory fish species, including Atlantic salmon, brook lamprey and European eel

Increased areas for pollinators via establishment of marginal vegetation and macrophytes

Enhanced biodiversity within a region with a growing population with a significant history relating to its river.

Funds raised through the Mossy Earth Membership are covering the initial costs of the project which include equipment and contractor fees for the habitat restoration works, tree management and livestock management as well as staffing, travel and permits costs.

The wider objective of this project is to establish a flagship ‘spawning tributary’ restoration to stimulate public interest and contribute to the Bristol Avon Fish Recovery Strategy. Produced by the Bristol Avon Catchment Partnership, this is a guide for collective action to sustain fish populations by embedding the value of rivers in decision-making across spatial planning, public health and economic development, with an ultimate aim of generating learning and information sharing across stakeholder groups. To add to this, the Bristol Avon Catchment Partnership also seeks to improve access for fish moving into and within the River Chew by working in partnership with local authorities, water companies, the Environment Agency and other NGOs. This focuses on improving fish passage by removing barriers to fish movement, such as weir removal and installing fish passes where removal is not feasible.

Freshwater ecologists from BART will conduct the habitat and fish spawning surveys, including salmonid spawning surveys and redd counts. The River Corridor Survey will be done at the start of the project and repeated 1-2 years after the project’s completion. 

Various other methods of monitoring will be applied, including site visits to check on the health of new trees, capturing ‘before and after’ imagery of the habitat and on-site discussions with landowners. Long-term monitoring will involve the community in the way of citizen science where volunteers will monitor riverflies as indicators of water and habitat quality.

Areas of the watercourse have a variety of vegetation while others are bare and exposed to livestock.

Different views of River Chew's riparian zone 

Key to achieving this project’s main aims is building landowner engagement. BART has already established good relationships with several landowners and is developing further support for the project. By promoting the benefits of establishing riparian corridors, BART hopes to encourage more landowners to agree on opportunities to reduce impact on the land through the proposed interventions. This project will be used as an example of best practice to promote more widespread adoption from other landowners in the future.

We are excited about working towards this project’s outcomes in the hope our efforts will create better ecological conditions and bring more life to the river.

There is a significant sediment issue in the catchment which greatly reduces water quality and decreases habitat quality by smothering gravel riffles in silt. One of the main pollution pathways into streams and rivers are roads and track systems. BART is creating 7 cross drains across the tracks to divert the runoff of the tracks and into the neighbouring vegetation.

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River Chew Spawning Tributary Restoration Management Plan.docx.pdf

Learn how we aim to restore riparian habitats and improve watercourses of two key fish spawning tributaries in the Bristol Avon catchment in partnership with BART. 

Restoring Fish Spawning Tributaries and Riparian Habitat

Improving connectivity and habitats in the River Chew catchment

The River Chew is a scenic watercourse that forms part of the Bristol Avon network of rivers, streams and lakes in the British countryside. Along stretches of the river, trees and vegetation provide food, shelter and spawning grounds for important migratory fish and invertebrates, including the protected Atlantic salmon. Where there is sufficient shade, trees help improve water temperatures, sediment levels and the riverbank. However, sections of the River Chew don’t have this delicate balance of vegetation cover and have been degraded by surrounding land use. Partnering with BART (Bristol Avon River Trust), we are focusing on river habitat restoration, riparian tree management, landowner engagement and habitat and fish spawning surveys to improve two key fish spawning tributaries.

Iberá - the shimmering waters of Argentina

The expansive wetland habitats of Iberá are famed for conjuring up picturesque scenes of entrancing wilderness. The land of ‘shimmering waters’ (‘iberá’ translated from Guaraní) also holds significant value as an area of special conservation interest. It’s situated in the Corrientes Province of northeastern Argentina in the heart of a subtropical plain encompassed by Paraná Atlantic forest, Chaco forest, open grasslands and shrublands. 

Within the park’s 758,000 hectares (comprising the Iberá Provincial Park of 600,000 ha and Iberá National Park, of 158,000 hectares) are some of the largest wetlands in South America. An estimated 4,000 species of flora and fauna contribute to the productive ecosystems in the diversity of marshlands, grasslands, forests and open water habitats. Of the many reptiles, mammals and birds, there are caimans, rheas, capybaras, many species of deer, armadillos, foxes, herons, storks and birds of prey. Endangered species such as the black-and-white monjita, the pampas deer, marsh deer, maned wolf, crowned eagle, and a large diversity of Paraná fish also take refuge in Iberá.

In the last century, a host of species in the Corrientes Province have succumbed to human pressures, either slipping entirely into extinction or greatly decreasing in numbers. 

Our Projects

Reforestation

Rewilding

Restoring Ancient Wetlands

Reintroducing the Endangered White-Clawed Crayfish

Reforesting Iceland

Saving Rare Sea Cliff Plants

Restoring Fish Spawning Tributaries and Riparian Habitat

Ocelot Reintroductions in Iberá